233. Adjective and substantive.

In ancient languages the difference between adjective and substantive is generally not so strongly marked as in modern ones. So especially in Sanskrit. Both classes of nouns have the same declension, and a great number of them have sometimes an adjectival meaning, sometimes they are substantives. They are only different as to their gender, substantives being nouns of one gender, but adjectives of three, as they must take the gender of the nouns they qualify (*1): śuklo varṇaḥ, śuklā sudhā, śuklaṃ vāsaḥ.

Adjectives proper, when used as substantives, may be distinguished thus:

a.) the substantivizing results from the ellipsis of the concordant subst., as śītāḥ [viz. āpaḥ] „cold water,” palitāḥ [viz. keśāḥ] „grey hairs;”

b.) they are substantives when having got some special meaning, as tanu adj. „thin,” subst. fem. „body;” hari adj. „brown,” subst. masc. „lion; monkey; Indra; Vishṇu;”

c.) they are used as substantives while retaining their general signification, as priyaḥ when meaning „a or the beloved one,” pāpaḥ „a (the) wicked man.” The last category is the sole regarding us here, for any adjective may in this way tum substantive. The diversity of the endings for the different genders and numbers enables to express by one single word such phrases as „a rich man;” „a young woman,” „a business of weight,” resp. āḍhya, taruṇo, mahat. The plural of course, if a plurality of things is meant; hence tāni „that” when = those things, Lat. ea, bhadrāṇi Lat. fausta, bahūni multa, etc.

Like other substantives, the substantivized adjectives may be an element in compounds. Hit. 94 hīnasevā na kartavyā kartavyo mahadāśrayaḥ (one must not serve a weak [master], but join a mighty one), ibid. 102 alamanenātītopālambhena (enough of this chiding the past).

(*1)
By this way we may account for the fact, that Indian grammar, full as it is of accurate and minute observations and of acute and sharp distinc­tions, does not possess proper terms expressive of categories of words as common and as indispensable to Western grammar as »adjective” and »substantive.” The guṇavacana of the vernacular grammarians encompasses more than our »adjective”; neither the dravyâṇi nor the jâtayas are the exact equivalent of our »substantives”. The term viçeshaṇa, used by Pâṇini himself, comprises both the apposition and the attributive adjective. The only term adopted to point out the adjective as such is nāma triliṅgam »noun of three genders.”

233. 形容詞と実名詞

古い言語では、形容詞（adjective）と実名詞（substantive）の間の差異は、ふつう現代のそれほどには明確な区別がなされていない。とりわけサンスクリットがそうである。〔形容詞と実名詞という〕名詞の2つの種別は同じ曲用をし、それらの大部分は、時に形容詞的意味をもち、時に実名詞となる。それらの唯一の違いは性（gender）に関するものである。実名詞は1つの性の名詞（noun）であるが、形容詞はśuklo varṇaḥ、śuklā sudhā、śuklaṃ vāsaḥのように修飾する名詞（noun）の性をとらねばならないから、3つの性〔をとりうる〕（*1）。

実名詞として用いられる場合の〔本来そうであるところの〕形容詞は、以下のように区別できよう：

a. 一致した実名詞が省略されて実名詞化したもの
śītāḥ [āpaḥ]（冷水）
palitāḥ [keśāḥ]（白髪）

b. 実名詞として用いられる場合特別な意味をもつもの
tanu（形容詞：薄い、実名詞：体）
hari（形容詞：茶色の、実名詞：（m.）ライオン・猿、インドラ、ヴィシュヌ）

c. 原義を保持しながら実名詞として用いられるもの
priyaḥ（最愛の男）
pāpaḥ（悪い男）

最後のカテゴリがここで特に注目すべきものである。いかなる形容詞も、この仕方で実名詞へと転じうるのである。異なる性・数による語末の多様さは、「富める男」（āḍhya）や「若い女」（taruṇo）、「重責」（mahat）のような語句をたった1つの語で表現することを可能にしている。複数のモノを意味する場合の〔つまり、敬意表現でない場合の〕複数（pl.）は、しかして、tāni（that）＝（those things, Lat. ea）、bhadrāṇi（Lat. fausta, 幸福）、bahūni（Lat. multa, 多くのもの）となる。

他の実名詞と同様に、実名詞化した形容詞は複合語の要素となりうる。
Hit. 94 hīnasevā na kartavyā kartavyo mahadāśrayaḥ (one must not serve a weak [master], but join a mighty one)
ibid. 102 alam anenātītopālambhena (enough of this chiding the past)

（*1）
これによって、正確にして緻密な観察と明確な区別に富んだインド文法学が、「形容詞」や「実名詞」という、西洋の文法学に一般的で不可欠な語のカテゴリの分類を表すのに適切な用語をもたないことが説明できる。現地の文法家たちにとってのguṇavacana（性質を表す語）は、我々のいう「形容詞」（adjective）以上のものを包含しているし、dravyāṇiとjātayaはどちらも、「実名詞」（substantive）とは正しく等価ではない。Pāṇini自身によって用いられるviśeṣaṇaという用語は、同格の名詞（apposition）と、名詞修飾的形容詞（attributive adjective）〔という意味を〕共に含んでいる。形容詞それ自体を指すための適語は、nāma triliṅgam（3つの性に属する語）である。

234. Abstract nouns.

Abstract nouns are much used in Sanskrit composition. They are partly derivates of verbs, partly of nouns. The verbal abstracts are not rarely to be paraphrased in translating, especially if the predicate of the sentence be made up by them. Then, our language generally prefers finite verbs. R. 3, 2, 11 the man-eater says to Râma kathaṃ tāpasayorvāṃ ca vāsaḥ pramadayā saha (and how is it, that you dwell with a woman, being ascets?), Daç. 101 amunā manmocanāya śapathaḥ kṛto mayā ca rahasyānirbhedāya (he took an oath, he would release me, and I, not to reveal the secret), ibid. 95 śīlaṃ hi madonmādayor amārgeṇāpy ucitakarmasv eva pravartanam, Mṛcch. I, p. 82 na puṣpamoṣam arhaty udyānalatā (the garden-creeper does not deserve to be stripped of its flowers), Mudr. V, p. 180 (Malayaketu to Râxasa) ārya tātena dhṛtapūrvāṇām ābharaṇaviśeṣāṇāṃ viśeṣataś candraguptahastagatānāṃ vaṇigbhya krayād adhigama iti na yujyata etat (sir, it is inconsistent, that by purchase from merchants yon should have come by precious jewels, once worn by my father, especially as they have passed into the hands of Candr.).

234. 抽象名詞

サンスクリットの構文において、抽象名詞（nominal abstract）（*訳注1）はよく用いられる。その一部は動詞派生で、一部は名詞派生である。翻訳の際に動詞的抽象〔名詞〕が言い換えられることは珍しくなく、特に文の述語が動詞的抽象名詞（*訳注2）から成る場合がそうである。なんとなれば、我々の言語は一般に定動詞を好むのである。
R. 3, 2, 11 人食いがRāmaに: kathaṃ tāpasayor vāṃ ca vāsaḥ pramadayā saha（そして、どのようにして、苦行者たるあなたは女と共に住んでいるのだね？）
Daç. 101 amunā manmocanāya śapathaḥ kṛto mayā ca rahasyānirbhedāya (he took an oath, he would release me, and I, not to reveal the secret)
ibid. 95 śīlaṃ hi madonmādayor amārgeṇāpy ucitakarmasv eva pravartanam
Mṛcch. I, p. 82 na puṣpamoṣam arhaty udyānalatā (the garden-creeper does not deserve to be stripped of its flowers)
Mudr. V, p. 180 (Malayaketu to Râxasa) ārya tātena dhṛtapūrvāṇām ābharaṇaviśeṣāṇāṃ viśeṣataś candraguptahastagatānāṃ vaṇigbhya krayādadhigama iti na yujyata etat (sir, it is inconsistent, that by purchase from merchants yon should have come by precious jewels, once worn by my father, especially as they have passed into the hands of Candr.)

（*訳注1）
抽象名詞（nominal abstract / abstract noun）：物体のように実体あるものではなく、性質や概念などを指示する語。対義語はconcrete noun。

（*訳注2）
抽象名詞の2分類について、名詞派生のものは諸文法書において比較的馴染みがある（-tā、-tva）。けれども動詞派生はそうでもない。抽象名詞に関して、それが動詞派生（derivates of verbs）であるとか動詞的抽象名詞（verbal abstract）であるとか言うことは（管見では）あまり見ない表現である。
1つ目の例文を見てみる。tāpasayor vāṃとpramadayā sahaはすべて補語であり、vāsaに係る。このvāsaは√vas（to dwell, stay, live）にkṛt接尾辞aを付加して作られる名詞である。このようにkṛt接尾辞aは語根の指示する行為を表す名詞（nomina actonis）を作る（Whitney, §1148）。verbal abstractが指すのは、このようにして作られた、行為を指示する抽象名詞であろう。

235.

Of the nominal abstracts the most important are those in -tā, -tvā and -bhāvaḥ, as they may be derived of any noun. Of mṛdu (weak) the abstract „weakness” is not only mārdavam or mradimā (see P. 5, 1, 122), but also mṛdutā, mṛdutvam and mṛdubhāvaḥ. Nothing, too, impedes making them of compounds, as śreṣṭhyapatyatā or -tvam or -bhāvaḥ „the being the child of a set” or caturmukhatvam (-tā, -tvam) „the having four mouths” (*1). Hence the abstracts in -tā and -tvam and their synonyms are a fit means for expressing clauses and the like in a concise form, especially when attended by a subjective genitive. So devadattasya śreṣṭhyapatyatvam = „the fact of N.N.’s being a merchant’s son,” brahmaṇaś caturmukhatā „the four-facedness of Brahma.”

Here are some examples of this widely used idiom: Panc. I, 222 kanyāpitṛtvaṃ khalu nāma kaṣṭam (it is a calamity to be father to a daughter); ibid. p. 71 dṛṣṭā mayāsya piṅgalakasya sārāsāratā (I have scrutinized the good qualities of P. as well as his vices); Kumâras. I, 48: if animals felt shame, the female yaks, it is said, when seeing the beautiful hair of fair Umâ, would have abated their pride of their tails kuryurvālapriyatvaṃ śithilaṃ camaryaḥ; Daç. 36 pravahaṇasya magnatayā sarveṣu nimagneṣu (as all were drowned because of the ship’s foundering); Panc. 73 tvayāsya sakhitvāt sarvo ’pi rājadharmaḥ parityaktaḥ (by having him as your friend you have neglected the whole of your royal duty); Çâk. II: king Dushyanta, as his presence is wanted at different places at the same time, says kṛtyayor bhinnadeśatvād dvaidhobhavati me manaḥ; Utt. II, p. 35 ghanavir alabhāvaḥ »the density and the being scattered,” that is »the relative density,” Comment. on R. 3, 42, 10 pattananagarayor arājadhānor ājadhānotvena bhedaḥ (the difference between the words pattana and nagara is this that the former does not signify the king’s residence, the latter does). The last example shows also the fitness of this idiom for the sake of explaining and demonstrating. By grasping the different links of a sentence into one single word, scientific or philosophical matters may be treated in the very clearest and plainest manner, complex ideas being rendered by complexes of words, whereas the relation of the abstract noun with the other words of the sentence is sufficiently pointed out by its case-ending.

(*1)
The suffixes for making these abstracts are taught by Pâṇini 5, 1, 119-136. Those in -bhāva are evidently tatpurushas, bhāva meaning »the state, the being.” For this reason Pâṇini is right not mentioning them.

235. 名詞派生の抽象名詞

名詞派生の抽象名詞（nominal abstract）について最も重要なものは、任意の名詞から派生する、-tāや-tvā、bhāvaḥに類するものである。mṛdu（弱い）の抽象名詞（弱さ）は、mārdavaやmradiman（P. 5, 1, 122を見よ）だけでなく、mṛdutāやmṛdutva、mṛdubhāvaもそうである。複合語にすることもできる：śreṣṭhyapatyatā（-tva、-bhāva）（権力者の子であること）、caturmukhatva（-tva、-bhāva）（4つの口を持つこと）（*1）のように。そういうわけで、-tāや-tvāとその同義語における抽象名詞は、特に主題を表す属格（subjective genitive）を伴う場合、文の節などを簡潔な形で表現するのに適した手段なのである。
devadattasya śreṣṭhyapatyatvam = ,,the fact of N.N.’s being a merchant’s son”
brahmaṇaś caturmukhatā ,,the four-facedness of Brahma”

Panc. I, 222 kanyāpitṛtvaṃ khalu nāma kaṣṭam (it is a calamity to be father to a daughter)
ibid. p. 71 dṛṣṭā mayāsya piṅgalakasya sārāsāratā (I have scrutinized the good qualities of P. as well as his vices)
Kumâras. I, 48: if animals felt shame, the female yaks, it is said, when seeing the beautiful hair of fair Umâ, would have abated their pride of their tails kuryurvālapriyatvaṃ śithilaṃ camaryaḥ
Daç. 36 pravahaṇasya magnatayā sarveṣu nimagneṣu (as all were drowned because of the ship’s foundering)
Panc. 73 tvayāsya sakhitvāt sarvo’pi rājadharmaḥ parityaktaḥ (by having him as your friend you have neglected the whole of your royal duty)
Çâk. II: king Dushyanta, as his presence is wanted at different places at the same time, says kṛtyayor bhinnadeśatvād dvaidhobhavati me manaḥ
Utt. II, p. 35 ghanavir alabhāvaḥ »the density and the being scattered,” that is »the relative density”
Comment. on R. 3, 42, 10 pattananagarayorarājadhānorājadhānotvena bhedaḥ (the difference between the words pattana and nagara is this that the former does not signify the king’s residence, the latter does)

最後の例は、説明や指示のためにもこの語法が適しているということを示している。文の様々なつながりを1つの語にして把握することで、科学的、あるいは哲学的問題を明晰かつ平易な仕方で扱うことができる。複雑な概念は複合語で描写される。その一方で、抽象名詞と文章中の他の語の関係は、その格語尾によって十分に指示されている。

（*1）
これらの抽象名詞を作る接尾辞はP. 5, 1, 119-136に説かれている。そのうち-bhāvaは、その語義が「状態、存在」であるから、〔正確に言えば接尾辞でなくて、〕明らかにtatpuruṣaである。この理由からして、Pāṇiniがそれらに言及しないのは正しい。

236. Idiomatic employment of them.

Some idiomatic employment of the abstracts — chiefly those -tā and -tvam — must be insisted upon.

I. Verbs of going and reaching with the accus. of an abstract noun.

I. Their accusative with verbs of going and coming is often used to express the passing from one state to another, cp. 39. Hitop. 94 mahān apy alpatāṃ yāti (even a mighty one may become mean), Prabodh. IV, p. 78 quotes the verse prāyaśaḥ kṛtināṃ kārye devā yānti sahāya tām (— become helpers), Var. Brh. 2, 17 daivajñatvaṃ prapadyate (he becomes an astrologer), Panc. 38 tad enaṃ māyāvacanair viśvāsyāhaṃ chātratāṃ vrajāti (— I will become his disciple), ibid. 62 saraḥ] śīghraṃ śoṣaṃ yāsyati (the lake will soon grow dry), Bhoj. 28 jalado vallabhatām eti sarvalokasya.

236. 抽象名詞のイディオム的用法

抽象名詞のイディオム的用法―主に-tāと-tvaの―は、以下の動詞を要請する。

I. 抽象名詞のacc.を伴う「行く」や「到達する」の動詞

「行く」や「来る」の動詞を伴うacc.は、しばしばある状態から別の状態への移行を表すために用いられる（39）。
Hitop. 94 mahān apy alpatāṃ yāti (even a mighty one may become mean)
Prabodh. IV, p. 78 quotes the verse prāyaśaḥ kṛtināṃ kārye devā yānti sahāya tām (— become helpers)
Var. Brh. 2, 17 daivajñatvaṃ prapadyate (he becomes an astrologer)
Panc. 38 tad enaṃ māyāvacanair viśvāsyāhaṃ chātratāṃ vrajāti (— I will become his disciple)
ibid. 62 saraḥ] śīghraṃ śoṣaṃ yāsyati (the lake will soon grow dry)
Bhoj. 28 jalado vallabhatām eti sarvalokasya

237.

II. The instrumental of an abstract noun expressive of in what quality; „as.”

II. Their instrumental, may signify in what quality somebody or something acts (67). Then it may be rendered by means of „as.” So Hitop. 103 kaścid vako dvitīyatvena prayātu (let some other heron go with him as [his] second), Ratn. IV, p. 114 ayi priye kim adyāpi madhyasthatayā vartase (why, my dear, do you behave as if you were indifferent even now ?).

This idiom is much used with verbs of acting-, behaving-, being as; knowing-, considering as, taking for; calling-, signifying as; treating as and many others. Instead of the phrase brāhmaṇaṃ tvāṃ jānāmi saṃbhāvayāmi vyapadiśāmi one may say brāhmaṇatvena tvāṃ jānāmi etc.

Examples: Kathâs. 26, 8 karṇadhāratayā sthitaḥ (being steersman); Prabodh. IV, p. 81 tasya kāmaḥ prathamo vīras tasya prativīratayāsmābhir bhavān eva nirūpitaḥ (Kâma is his chief warrior, it is you we have looked for as his match); Daç. 76 ṛṣim uktaś ca rāgaḥ saṃdhyātvenāskurat (and the glow [of passion], which had been loosened from the holy man, [now] shone as twilight); Ragh. 14, 40 chāyā hi bhūmeḥ śaśino malatvenāropitā śuddhim ataḥ prajābhiḥ (on spotless moon people have thrown earth’s shade by way of a spot); Daç. 112 māṃ tu na kaścid ihatya īdṛktayā jano jānāti (nobody here knows me as such); ibid. 93 tvayā niyatam asmi tadāgatitvenāham apadeśyaḥ (you cannot but denounce me as the person, you have got it from); ibid. 144 iyaṃ…tavaiva jāyātvena samakalpyata (she has been destined a wife for you); ibid. 94 sa eva tapasvī taskaratvenārthapatir agrāhyata (it was the unhappy Arth. who was seized as the thief); Pat. I, p. 399 when treating of the karmadhâraya kṛṣṇatilāḥ, says tilāḥ prādhānyena vivakṣitā bhavanti kṛṣṇo viśeṣaṇatvena; Kathâs. 52, 60 dāsītvenāśrayasi rājaputram; Mhbh. 1, 43, 24 gacchadhvaṃ yūyam avyagrā rājānaṃ kāryavattayā. (*1).

Rem. In the instances quoted the abstracts are ending in -tayā and -tvena. But although these suffixes are the most employed ones, any other abstract has the same effect, Daç. 15 tadīryābhakayor yamajayor dhātrībhāvena parikalpitāham (I was appointed nurse of the twins, his children); Kâç. I, p. 16 svam iti jñātidhanayoḥ saṃjñārūpeṇa vartate (sva is used as a designation of kinsmen and property); Pat. I, p. 230 imān īndriyāṇi kadācit svātantryeṇa vivakṣitāni bhavanti tadyathā / idaṃ me ‘kṣi suṣṭhu praśyati / kadācit pāratantryeṇa / anenākṣṇā suṣṭhu paśyāmi. For this reason, different abstracts made from one noun are as a rule promiscuous; compare f. i Kathâs. 13, 132 prayāti sma dūtyayā with Hit. 97 prayātu daityena, both dūtyayā and daityena signifying »in the quality of a messenger.”

(*1)
The germ of this much used idiom is found already in the Ṛgveda-mantras, in such phrases as puruṣatā (instr.= skrt puruṣatayā). Ṛgv. 10, 15, 6 mā hiṃsiṣṭa pitaraḥ kena cinto yadva āgaḥ puruṣatā karām (do us no injury I fathers, on account of any offence, that we, after the manner of men [as being men], may have committed against you).

237. 程度を表す抽象名詞のinst.

II. 程度を表す抽象名詞のinst.

抽象名詞のinst.は、何某か、あるいは何らかの行為の性質を表す（67）。よって、「…として」（as）という語を用いて翻訳されうる：
Hitop. 103 kaścid vako dvitīyatvena prayātu (let some other heron go with him as [his] second)
Ratn. IV, p. 114 ayi priye kim adyāpi madhyasthatayā vartase (why, my dear, do you behave as if you were indifferent even now ?)

この語法は、「…をする」・「…として振る舞う」・「…としてある」、「…と知る」・「…と見なす」・「…と思う」、「…を呼ぶ」、「…と知らせる」、「…として扱う」やその他多くの動詞を伴って、よく用いられる。〔例えば、〕brāhmaṇaṃ tvāṃ jānāmi saṃbhāvayāmi vyapadiśāmiというフレーズの代わりにbrāhmaṇatvena tvāṃ jānāmiということができる、など。

例：
Kathâs. 26, 8 karṇadhāratayā sthitaḥ (being steersman)
Prabodh. IV, p. 81 tasya kāmaḥ prathamo vīras tasya prativīratayāsmābhir bhavān eva nirūpitaḥ (Kâma is his chief warrior, it is you we have looked for as his match)
Daç. 76 ṛṣim uktaś ca rāgaḥ saṃdhyātvenāskurat (and the glow [of passion], which had been loosened from the holy man, [now] shone as twilight)
Ragh. 14, 40 chāyā hi bhūmeḥ śaśino malatvenāropitā śuddhim ataḥ prajābhiḥ (on spotless moon people have thrown earth’s shade by way of a spot)
Daç. 112 māṃ tu na kaścid ihatya īdṛktayā jano jānāti (nobody here knows me as such)
ibid. 93 tvayā niyatam asmi tadāgatitvenāham apadeśyaḥ (you cannot but denounce me as the person, you have got it from)
ibid. 144 iyaṃ… tavaiva jāyātvena samakalpyata (she has been destined a wife for you)
ibid. 94 sa eva tapasvī taskaratvenārthapatir agrāhyata (it was the unhappy Arth. who was seized as the thief)
Pat. I, p. 399 when treating of the karmadhâraya kṛṣṇatilāḥ, says tilāḥ prādhānyena vivakṣitā bhavanti kṛṣṇo viśeṣaṇatvena
Kathâs. 52, 60 dāsītvenāśrayasi rājaputram
Mhbh. 1, 43, 24 gacchadhvaṃ yūyam avyagrā rājānaṃ kāryavattayā （*1）

【補足】
引用した例文では、抽象名詞の語尾は-tayāと-tvenaとなっている。けれども、これらの接尾辞は最もよく用いられるものの1つであり、他の抽象も同様の効果がある。
Daç. 15 tadīryābhakayor yamajayor dhātrībhāvena parikalpitāham (I was appointed nurse of the twins, his children)
Kâç. I, p. 16 svam iti jñātidhanayoḥ saṃjñārūpeṇa vartate (sva is used as a designation of kinsmen and property)
Pat. I, p. 230 imān īndriyāṇi kadācit svātantryeṇa vivakṣitāni bhavanti tadyathā / idaṃ me ‘kṣi suṣṭhu praśyati / kadācit pāratantryeṇa / anenākṣṇā suṣṭhu paśyāmi

この理由から、ある名詞から異なる仕方で作られる抽象名詞は、概して〔その意味・効果が〕混雑している。例えば、Kathâs. 13, 132 prayāti sma dūtyayāとHit. 97 prayātu daityenaの場合、dṛtyayāとdaityenaは共に（in the quality of a messenger）を意味する。

（*1）
このよく用いられる語法の萌芽は、すでにpuruṣatā（inst.、古典サンスクリットではpuruṣatayā）のようなṚgvedaのマントラに見いだされる。
Ṛgv. 10, 15, 6 mā hiṃsiṣṭa pitaraḥ kena cinto yadva āgaḥ puruṣatā karām (do us no injury I fathers, on account of any offence, that we, after the manner of men [as being men], may have committed against you)

238. Other similar idioms:

Occasionally — but not often — an ablative will do the same duty as the instrumental of 237. R. 8, 6, 10 tvām āsādya mahātmānam… arthitvān nātha vakṣyāmaḥ (— we will address you, Lord, as supplicants), cp. Kathâs. 72 , 165.

Locative.

The locative of the abstracts may also be used so, as R. 3, 36, 17 śṛṇu tatkarma sāhāyye yatkāryaṃ vacanān mama (be informed of the matter, which you must perform as my helper on my order). It is especially used with verbs of appointing, choosing, designing to some rank or dignity. Panc. 26 svāmī yadi kathayati tato bhṛtyatve niyojayāmi (— I will make [him] your attendant); Nala. 3, 23 teṣām anyatamaṃ devaṃ patitve varayasva ha (choose one of those devas for your husband); Hit. 91 sa pakṣirājye ‘bhiṣiktaḥ.

Note that of abstracts of the feminine gender the ablative and locative are not used so, only the instrumental (cp. 102).

238. 類似のイディオム

abl.が237で見たinst.と同じはたらきをすることがある。
R. 8, 6, 10 tvām āsādya mahātmānam… arthitvān nātha vakṣyāmaḥ (— we will address you, Lord, as supplicants)

Kathâs. 72 , 165と比較せよ。

loc.

抽象名詞のloc.もまたそのように用いられうる。特に、ある階級に「任命する」、「選出する」、「予定する」などの動詞を伴って用いられる：
R. 3, 36, 17 śṛṇu tatkarma sāhāyye yatkāryaṃ vacanān mama (be informed of the matter, which you must perform as my helper on my order)
Panc. 26 svāmī yadi kathayati tato bhṛtyatve niyojayāmi (— I will make [him] your attendant)
Nala 3, 23 teṣām anyatamaṃ devaṃ patitve varayasva ha (choose one of those devas for your husband)
Hit. 91 sa pakṣirājye ‘bhiṣiktaḥ
f.の抽象名詞に関して、abl.とloc.は用いられず、inst.に限られる（102を参照）。

239. Dative.

The dative of the abstracts with verbs of appointing etc. will occasionally occur. Mhbh. 1, 139, 1 yauvarājyāya sthāpito dhṛtarāṣṭreṇa yudhiṣṭhiraḥ, Kathâs. 38, 153 vṛtavān mitratvāya nṛpo nṛpam.

Rem. In the ancient liturgical books we met with two datives, one of the person and one of the abstract noun, both attending on the same verb, especially sthā and kalp. Ait. Br. 4, 25, 8 indrāya vai devā jyaiṣṭhyāya śraiṣṭhyāya nātiṣṭhanta (the devas did not yield to Indra as to the eldest and most excellent [of them]) / so ‘bravīd bṛhaspatiṃ yājaya mā dvādaśāheneti / tamayājayat / tato vai tasmai devā jyaiṣṭhyāya śraiṣṭhyāyātiṣṭhanta etc., cp. T. S. 2, 2, 11, 5. Ait. Br. 7, 17, 7 Viçvâmitra thus addresses his lions śṛṇotana… ye ke ca bhrātaraḥ sthana / asmai jyaiṣṭhyāya kalpadhvam (— attend on him [Çunaḥçepha] as your eldest), cp. 7, 18, 8. Note the attraction in this idiom. — Cp. a similar employment of the locative: Ait. Br. 4, 25, 9 samasminsvā śreṣṭhatāyāṃ jānate »his kin acknowledge his authority.”

239. 承前：dat.

「任命する」等の動詞を伴う抽象名詞のdat.が時折見られる。
Mhbh. 1, 139, 1 yauvarājyāya sthāpito dhṛtarāṣṭreṇa yudhiṣṭhiraḥ
Kathâs. 38, 153 vṛtavān mitratvāya nṛpo nṛpam

【補足】
古代の祭儀書では、人物のdat.と抽象名詞のdat.が共に同じ動詞（特に√sthāと√kalp）に係ることがある。
Ait. Br. 4, 25, 8 indrāya vai devā jyaiṣṭhyāya śraiṣṭhyāya nātiṣṭhanta (the devas did not yield to Indra as to the eldest and most excellent [of them]) / so ‘bravīd bṛhaspatiṃ yājaya mā dvādaśāheneti / tamayājayat / tato vai tasmai devā jyaiṣṭhyāya śraiṣṭhyāyātiṣṭhanta… (cp. T. S. 2, 2, 11, 5)
Ait. Br. 7, 17, 7 Viçvâmitra thus addresses his lions: śṛṇotana… ye ke ca bhrātaraḥ sthana / asmai jyaiṣṭhyāya kalpadhvam (— attend on him [Çunaḥçepha] as your eldest) (cp. 7, 18, 8)

この語法における牽引（attraction）（*訳注）に注意せよ。また、loc.に関して似た用法がある。
Ait. Br. 4, 25, 9 samasminsvā śreṣṭhatāyāṃ jānate »his kin acknowledge his authority.”

（*訳注）
牽引（attraction）：近隣する語に影響されて、ある語が本来の性・数・格を変えること。

240. Adverbs.

Sanskrit adverbs, as far as they are not old words of uncertain and forgotten origin — as muhuḥ, drāk, mṛṣā, makṣu, alam and the like — are noun-cases either distinctly felt as such or in some degree petrified. The accusative of the neuter singular is as a rule employed, if adjectives be wanted to act as adverbs (*1) (55).

Bahuvrîhis, like other adjectives, may do duty of adverbs, when put in the accus. of the neuter. Daç. 169 amuṃ ca… ātmanirviśeṣaṃ pupoṣa (and he took no less care for him as for himself); Panc. 55 iti vadatyāṃ mātari rājaputrī bhayalajjānatānanaṃ (as her mother spoke thus, the princess lowered her head for fear and shame and said); Çâk. I grīvābhaṅgābhir āmaṃ muhur anupatati syan dane dattadṛṣṭiḥ ([the stag] runs on casting now and then a look on the chariot so as to cause to turn its neck ever so neatly); Âçv. Grhy. 1, 9, 1 pāṇigrahaṇādi gṛhyaṃ paricaret here the first word is an adverb »from his marriage, beginning with his marriage.”

When derived from substantives, the adverbs are mostly modal instrumentals and ablatives (77, 104). Daç.136 smar asi kim adyāpy āyathātathyena mayoktapūrvam, here āyathātathyena = »falsely;” R. 3, 61, 20 nikhilena »wholly”. Likewise paryāyeṇa »alternately,” lolayā »jokingly,” etc., and ablatives, as haṭhāt, svabhāvāt.

(*1)
Adverbs are styled kriyāviśeṣaṇāni »attributes of verbs.” The acc. neuter of an adjective, when used adverbially, is named karma kriyāviśeṣaṇam see f. i. Kâç. on P. 2, 3, 33.

240. 副詞

サンスクリットにおける副詞は、起源が不確かであるか忘れられたもの―muhuḥ、drāk、mṛṣā、makṣu、alamなど―でない限りは、素直に感ぜられるそのままか、あるいは、ある程度硬直した〔意味内容〕のどちらかである。形容詞が副詞としての働きを要請されるときには、概してn.sg.acc.が用いられる（55）（*1）。

他の形容詞のようなbahuvrīhiは、n.acc.で置かれるとき、副詞の役割を果たしうる。
Daç. 169 amuṃ ca… ātmanirviśeṣaṃ pupoṣa (and he took no less care for him as for himself)
Panc. 55 iti vadatyāṃ mātari rājaputrī bhayalajjānatānanaṃ (as her mother spoke thus, the princess lowered her head for fear and shame and said)
Çâk. I grīvābhaṅgābhir āmaṃ muhur anupatati syan dane dattadṛṣṭiḥ ([the stag] runs on casting now and then a look on the chariot so as to cause to turn its neck ever so neatly)
Âçv. Grhy. 1, 9, 1 pāṇigrahaṇādi gṛhyaṃ paricaret »from his marriage, beginning with his marriage.”

最後の例文では、最初の語が副詞である。

実名詞から派生する場合、ほとんど、副詞は方法を表すinst.・abl.である（77, 104）。
Daç.136 smar asi kim adyāpy āyathātathyena mayoktapūrvam

ここでのāyathātathyenaは「不正に」という意味である。また、R. 3, 61, 20 nikhilenaは「完全に」である。同様に、paryāyeṇaは「交互に」、lolayāは「おどけて」など。abl.ではhaṭhāt、svabhāvātなど。

（*1）
副詞はkriyāviśeṣaṇāni（動詞の性質を表す語）と呼ばれる。副詞的に用いられる場合の形容詞のn.acc.はkarma kriyāviśeṣaṇamと名付けられている。Kâç. on P. 2, 3, 33をみよ。

241. Adverbs. in -vat.

For the sake of comparison one uses adverbs in -vat. They may be made of any noun, and are to be rendered by „as” or „like.” When paraphrased, they are = yathā or iva with any noun-case wanted by the context, therefore siṃhavat may be = siṃha iva or siṃham iva or siṃhāyeva and so on. — R. 3, 45, 5 saumitre mitrarūpeṇa bhrātus tvam asi śatruvat (in the shape of a friend, Laxmaṇa, you are like a foe to your brother); Mhbh. 1, 148, 15 śuconpāṇḍudāyādāndāhayām āsa śatruvat [= yathā śatrūn] (the innocent Pāṇḍavas he did burn as if they were his enemies); Kâm. 3, 31 pūjayed devatāḥ sadā / devatāvadgurujanam ātmavac ca suhṛjjanam [= devatā iva and ātmānam iva]; Mhbh. 1, 159, 4 taradhvaṃ plavavan mayā [= plaveneva] (pass over by me as if by a vessel); Hit. 10 mātṛvat paradāreṣu paradravyeṣu loṣṭavat ātmavat sarvabhūteṣu yaḥ paśyati sa paṇḍitaḥ (he who looks on the wife of another as on his mother, on the goods of another as on clay, on all creatures as on himself, such one is a wise man).

Rem. 1. Compare with them Latin adverbs as regaliter, when meaning »kingly, like a king.” Mhbh. 1, 145, 1 pāṇḍavāḥ…bhīṣmasya pādau jagṛhurār tavat (suppliciter).

Rem. 2. Like other compounds, the adverbs in -vat may have their former member standing in construction with some other word outside the compound. Panc. I, 260 abhimukho nāśaṃ yāti vahnau pataṅgavat = yathā vahnau pataṅgo yāti.

241. -vatの副詞

比較のために-vatの副詞が用いられる。任意の名詞から作られ、「…と同じくらい」や「…と同様」の語で翻訳される。言い換える場合であれば、任意の名詞を伴うyathāやivaが文脈によって要請される。よってsiṃhavatであればsiṃha iva、siṃham iva、siṃhāyevaなどともできる。
R. 3, 45, 5 saumitre mitrarūpeṇa bhrātus tvam asi śatruvat (in the shape of a friend, Laxmaṇa, you are like a foe to your brother)
Mhbh. 1, 148, 15 śuconpāṇḍudāyādāndāhayām āsa śatruvat [= yathā śatrūn] (the innocent Pāṇḍavas he did burn as if they were his enemies)
Kâm. 3, 31 pūjayed devatāḥ sadā / devatāvadgurujanam ātmavac ca suhṛjjanam [= devatā iva and ātmānam iva]
Mhbh. 1, 159, 4 taradhvaṃ plavavan mayā [= plaveneva] (pass over by me as if by a vessel)
Hit. 10 mātṛvat paradāreṣu paradravyeṣu loṣṭavat ātmavat sarvabhūteṣu yaḥ paśyati sa paṇḍitaḥ (he who looks on the wife of another as on his mother, on the goods of another as on clay, on all creatures as on himself, such one is a wise man)

【補足1】
ラテン語の副詞regaliter（王の、王のような）と比較せよ。
Mhbh. 1, 145, 1 pāṇḍavāḥ… bhīṣmasya pādau jagṛhurār tavat (suppliciter)

【補足2】
他の複合語と同様に、-vatの副詞は、複合語の外の他の単語を伴って、構文における前分をもちうる。
Panc. I, 260 abhimukho nāśaṃ yāti vahnau pataṅgavat = yathā vahnau pataṅgo yāti

242.

Adverbs in -śaḥ involve the dissolution of a whole into many parts. Mâlat, VIII, p. 135 lavaśa enāṃ nikṛtya duḥkhamaraṇāṃ karomi (I will cut her into pieces and cause her to die a miserable death).

As to those in -dhā see 302 R.

副詞-śaḥ

-śaḥの副詞は、全体を多くの部分へ分解することに関与する。
Mâlat, VIII, p. 135 lavaśa enāṃ nikṛtya duḥkhamaraṇāṃ karomi (I will cut her into pieces and cause her to die a miserable death)

-dhāの類については302の補足をみよ。

243. Adjectives doing duty of adverbs.

Sometimes — but not so often as in Latin and Greek — adjectives are used, where one might expect adverbs. Of the kind are f. i. vivaśa = Lat. invitus, kevala (mere). Kathâs. 28, 70 rambhā vivaśā sā tirodadhe (R. disappeared against her will); Kathâs. 29, 120 yan na muktāsubhis tatra kāraṇaṃ kevalo vidhiḥ (that she did not die, the cause thereof was nothing but Destiny, Germ. nur das Schicksal), Likewise others, which in fact serve to qualify the verb, though they do formally agree with some substantive (31, V). R. 3, 60, 25 mama visrabdhaḥ kathayasva (tell it me confidentially), M. 3, 101 tṛṇāni bhūmir udakaṃ vāk caturthī ca sūnṛtā (grass, earth, water, and fourthly, friendly speech). Compare these more instances, taken from the ancient language: Ait. Br. 1, 7, 13 uttamām aditiṃ yajati (finally he worships Aditi), Ch. Up. 6, 6 sa ūrdhvaḥ samudīṣati (it rises upwards), Âçv. Grhy. 1, 11, 5 udañcaṃ nayanti (they lead [the victim] to the north).

243. 副詞としてはたらく形容詞

ときどき―ラテン語とギリシャ語ほどではないけれども―副詞を用いるような場所で、形容詞が用いられることがある。例えば、vivaśa（不本意の；Lat. invitus）、kevala（単なる）の類。
Kathâs. 28, 70 rambhā vivaśā sā tirodadhe (R. disappeared against her will)
Kathâs. 29, 120 yan na muktāsubhis tatra kāraṇaṃ kevalo vidhiḥ (that she did not die, the cause thereof was nothing but Destiny, Germ. nur das Schicksal)

同様に、実際上で動詞を修飾するものは、一部の実名詞と形式的に〔性・数・格が〕一致する（31, V）。
R. 3, 60, 25 mama visrabdhaḥ kathayasva (tell it me confidentially)
M. 3, 101 tṛṇāni bhūmir udakaṃ vāk caturthī ca sūnṛtā (grass, earth, water, and fourthly, friendly speech)

古語を出典とするこれらの更なる例と比較せよ。
Ait. Br. 1, 7, 13 uttamām aditiṃ yajati (finally he worships Aditi)
Ch. Up. 6, 6 sa ūrdhvaḥ samudīṣati (it rises upwards)
Âçv. Grhy. 1, 11, 5 udañcaṃ nayanti (they lead [the victim] to the north)

244. Comparative.

Of two persons or things, possessing the same quality, the comparative is to point out that which is endowed with the higher degree of it: {P. 5, 3, 57.} sādhutaras tayoḥ (the better of these two), vico madhunaḥ svādīyaḥ (words, sweeter than honey). Even if the person or thing compared with, be implied, not expressed, the comparative may be used. We then translate it by „tolerably, rather.”(*1) Daç. 159 tato ‘lpīyasā kālena rājñaḥ priyamahiṣī (not very long hereafter —), Prabodh. II, p. 30 mayā svagṛhiṇī priyasy api projihitā (I have abandoned my wife, though I loved her very much), Panc. 35 tac chrutvā piṅgalakaḥ sādarataraṃ tam uvāca (after hearing this , P. addressed him in a rather respectful manner). — Occasionally the comparative may even express »too.” Mhbh. I (Paushyaparva) Upamanyu, when asked by his master why he looks fat though every opportunity of getting food has been intercepted to him, answers he has drunk the foam, given back by the calves after having drunk the milk of their mothers. But even that livelihood displeases his spiritual teacher, for ete tvad anukampayā guṇavanto vatsāḥ prabhūtataraṃ phenam udgiranti / tad eṣām api vatsānāṃ vṛtty uparodhaṃ karoṣi (these virtuous calves give back too much foam, for pity on you, for this reason you prevent also their being fed).

(*1)
Cp. Vâmana’s Stilregeln by Cappeller, ch. Çubdaçuddhi, s. 62.

244. 比較級

同じ性質を持つ2つの人やモノについて、比較級（comparative）は、そ〔の性質〕をより高い程度（higher degree）備えた方を指示する{P. 5, 3, 57.}：
sādhutaras tayoḥ (the better of these two)
vico madhunaḥ svādīyaḥ (words, sweeter than honey)

比較される人やモノで、暗示され、表現されないものであっても、比較級は用いられうる。そのときには「かなり」や「より」の語で翻訳する（*1）。
Daç. 159 tato ‘lpīyasā kālena rājñaḥ priyamahiṣī (not very long hereafter —)
Prabodh. II, p. 30 mayā svagṛhiṇī priyasy api projihitā (I have abandoned my wife, though I loved her very much)
Panc. 35 tac chrutvā piṅgalakaḥ sādarataraṃ tam uvāca (after hearing this , P. addressed him in a rather respectful manner)

時に、比較級は「…過ぎる」を表現しうる。
Mhbh. I (Paushyaparva) Upamanyu, when asked by his master why he looks fat though every opportunity of getting food has been intercepted to him, answers he has drunk the foam, given back by the calves after having drunk the milk of their mothers. But even that livelihood displeases his spiritual teacher, for ete tvad anukampayā guṇavanto vatsāḥ prabhūtataraṃ phenam udgiranti / tad eṣām api vatsānāṃ vṛtty uparodhaṃ karoṣi (these virtuous calves give back too much foam, for pity on you, for this reason you prevent also their being fed)

（*1）
Cp. Cappeller 1880, ch. Śubdaśuddhi, s. 62.

245. Superlative.

The superlative expresses not only the „highest” but also a „very high” degree, just as in Latin and Greek. pāpiṣṭha may be sometimes = very bad, sometimes = the worst. — When denoting the highest degree, there is generally some word added, as sarveṣām, loke etc. Mhbh. 1, 143, 3 = ayaṃ samājaḥ sumahān ramaṇoyatamo bhuvi (this great assembly is the most pleasing on earth). But for the rest it signifies excellency among three or more, the comparative being destined for denoting it between two. Of two brothers one is the jyāyān, the other kanīyān, of more one the jyeṣṭhaḥ, another the kaniṣṭhaḥ.

246. 最上級

最上級（superlative）は、ちょうどラテン語やギリシャ語のように、「最も」のみならず「とても」程度をも表す。pāpiṣṭhaは時に「とても悪い」、時に「最悪の」でありうる。最高の度合いを表す際には、一般に、sarveṣāmやloke等の語が付加される。
Mhbh. 1, 143, 3 ayaṃ samājaḥ sumahān ramaṇoyatamo bhuvi (this great assembly is the most pleasing on earth)

しかし、それ以外の場合は、最上級は3つかそれ以上のものの間で優れていることを意味し、比較級は2つのものの間のそれを表すよう定められている。例えば、2人の兄弟においては1人がjyāyān、もう1人がkanīyānと呼ばれ、3人以上の場合はうち1人がjyeṣṭhaḥ、他がkaniṣṭhaḥと呼ばれる。

246. Carelessness in their employment.

Yet carelessness in the employment of comparative and superlative is not rare in Sanskrit. (*1) Sometimes the comparative is used instead of the superlative. Pat. I, p. 77 yathā tarhi bahuṣu putreṣv etad upapannaṃ bhavatyayaṃ me jyeṣṭhaḥ putro ‘yaṃ me madhyamo ‘yaṃ me kanīyān iti — instead kaniṣṭhaḥ. Panc. I, 408 it is said that of the shâdgunya the daṇḍa is the worst expedient, here we find pāpīyān, not pāpiṣṭhaḥ, ibid. p. 305 among four individuals one is said the jyeṣṭhataraḥ (*2).

Sometimes again the superlative is used instead of the comparative. Kathâs. 43, 23 of two brothers one calls himself kaniṣṭha, and his brother jyeṣṭha. Panc. 113 svāmy amātyayor ekatamasya vinipātaḥ (a mischief of either king or minister). Cp. ibid. V, 36 vidyāyā buddhir uttamā (judgment is better than learning), here the superl. is of necessity, as the comp. uttara does not purport the meaning of excellency. For a different reason prathama a superl. as to its form, is the equivalent of both »first” and »former.” So f. i. Mâlav. II, p. 35 atra bhavator ācāryayoḥ katarasya prathamaṃ prayogaṃ drakṣyāmaḥ (of whom of these two honourable professors shall we see the performance the first?)

(*1)
Further investigation will decide for how much of that seeming irregularity we are indebted to the faults and the sloth of copyists, and how much of it is really good Sanskrit.

(*2)
As to the form cp. R. 2, 12, 26 bhūyastaram and Whitney Sanskr. Grammar § 473, al. 4.

246. それらの使用における不徹底

そうではあるけれども、比較級と最上級の使用における不徹底はサンスクリットでは珍しくない（*1）。比較級は最上級の代わりに用いられることがある。
Pat. I, p. 77 yathā tarhi bahuṣu putreṣv etad upapannaṃ bhavatyayaṃ me jyeṣṭhaḥ putro ‘yaṃ me madhyamo ‘yaṃ me kanīyān iti — instead kaniṣṭhaḥ
Panc. I, 408 it is said that of the shâdgunya the daṇḍa is the worst expedient, here we find pāpīyān, not pāpiṣṭhaḥ
ibid. p. 305 among four individuals one is said the jyeṣṭhataraḥ（*2）

また、最上級が比較級の代わりに用いられることもある。
Kathâs. 43, 23 of two brothers one calls himself kaniṣṭha, and his brother jyeṣṭha
Panc. 113 svāmy amātyayor ekatamasya vinipātaḥ (a mischief of either king or minister)
ibid. V, 36 vidyāyā buddhir uttamā (judgment is better than learning)

〔最後の例文について、〕複合語のuttaraは卓越性を意味しないから、ここでは最上級が必要とされる。違う理由から、prathamaの最上級形は、「第一の」とも「前者の」とも等しい。
Mâlav. II, p. 35 atra bhavator ācāryayoḥ katarasya prathamaṃ prayogaṃ drakṣyāmaḥ (of whom of these two honourable professors shall we see the performance the first?)

（*1）
文献に見られる不規則性のどれほどが写本作成者の過失や無精に依るもので、どれほどが本当に可いサンスクリットであるのかは、さらなる調査により確定されるであろう。

（*2）
語形に関しては、R. 2, 12, 26 bhūyastaramおよびWhitney § 473-dを参照せよ。

247.

The suffixes -tara and -tama may be put even to substantives. Instances are scarce in the classic language (*1). Panc. 326 sa ca sarvān aśvān avalokya taṃ rākṣasam aśvatamaṃ vijñāyādhirūḍhaḥ (and he [the horse-thief] examined all the horses, saw that the râxasa [who had assumed the figure of a horse] was the best of them [liter. »the most horse”] and mounted him).

(*1)
They are somewhat frequent in the ancient dialect, see Whitney § 473, al. 1. Classic Sanskrit possesses some, which have a special meaning, as aśvataraḥ (mule), vatsataraḥ (Ragh. 3, 32) »an older calf.”

247. 実名詞に付加される接尾辞-tara・-tama

接尾辞-taraと-tamaは実名詞にも付加しうる。実例は古典サンスクリットには乏しい（*1）。
Panc. 326 sa ca sarvān aśvān avalokya taṃ rākṣasam aśvatamaṃ vijñāyādhirūḍhaḥ (and he [the horse-thief] examined all the horses, saw that the râxasa [who had assumed the figure of a horse] was the best of them [liter. »the most horse”] and mounted him)

（*1）
これらは古代方言においてやや頻繁である。Whitney §473-aをみよ。古典サンスクリットにはaśvataraḥ（騾馬）やvatsataraḥ（〔離乳したくらいに〕年のいった仔牛）（Ragh. 3, 32）のような特殊な意味をもつものがいくつかある。

248. Degrees of comparison in adverbs.

The comparative and superlative being wanted to do duty of adverbs, they are put in the accus. of the neuter, just as is done with all other adjectives (55). So bhūyān is adverb of bhūyaḥ, prathamam of prathamaḥ, etc. Pat. I, p. 10 nanu ye kṛtayat nāste sādhīyaḥ śabdān prayokṣyante (will they, who have studied [grammar], apply words the better?); Çâk. IV bhūyiṣṭhaṃ dakṣiṇā parijane.

248. 副詞としての比較級

副詞の役割を要請されるところの比較級と最上級は、他のあらゆる副詞と同じように、n.acc.に置かれる。よって例えば、bhūyānはbhūyaḥの、prathamamはprathamaḥの副詞である。
Pat. I, p. 10 nanu ye kṛtayat nāste sādhīyaḥ śabdān prayokṣyante (will they, who have studied [grammar], apply words the better?)
Çâk. IV bhūyiṣṭhaṃ dakṣiṇā parijane

249.

Degrees of comparison may be made from undeclinable words; then they end in -tarām and -tamām as uccaistarām (higher). Mâlav. II, p. 36 atitarām kāntam (exceedingly charming), cp. P. 1, 2, 35.

ramayatitarām and the like.

Such comparison is made also of forms, belonging to the finite verb. {P. 5, 3, 56.} Instances of comparatives, made from the 3d person of the present not rarely occur in literature. R. 2, 64, 72 hṛdayaṃ sīdatetarām (my spirits almlost lower). Prabodh. IV, p. 87 vināśo labdhasya vyathayatitarāṃ na tvanudayaḥ (to lose something gained before grieves more than having gained nothing at all). Vikram. V, p. 178 prabhavatitarāṃ…bhujaṅgaśiśor viṣam (even of an infant-snake the poison is rather strong). Ratn. III, p. 74 ramayatitarām — Kathâs. 102, 35 we meet -tarām put to a 3d person of the perfect: śraddadhetarām.

Instances of the superlative I do not recollect having met with, but they must be or have been not less allowed, as both degrees are equally taught by Pâṇini. (*1).

(*1)
Whitney § 473, al. 3 says that both compar. and superl. of verbal forms are »barbarous forms;” for what reason, I do not understand. Is it perhaps, because Kâlidâsa wrote barbarous Sanskrit, or because Pâṇini did not know well the idioms of his language?

249. 不変化辞から作られる比較級

比較級は不変化辞から作ることができる。よってそのとき、uccaistarām（より高い）のように-tarāmや-tamāmで終わる（P. 1, 2, 35をみよ）。
Mâlav. II, p. 36 atitarām kāntam (exceedingly charming)

定動詞から作られるもの

そのような比較変化が、定動詞に属する形からも作られる。{P. 5, 3, 56.}　現在形三人称（Pres.3rd.）から作られる比較級の例は、文学作品ではしばしば起こる。
R. 2, 64, 72 hṛdayaṃ sīdatetarām (my spirits almlost lower)
Prabodh. IV, p. 87 vināśo labdhasya vyathayatitarāṃ na tvanudayaḥ (to lose something gained before grieves more than having gained nothing at all)
Vikram. V, p. 178 prabhavatitarāṃ… bhujaṅgaśiśor viṣam (even of an infant-snake the poison is rather strong)
Ratn. III, p. 74 ramayatitarām
Kathâs. 102, 35 we meet -tarām put to a 3d person of the perfect: śraddadhetarām

〔不変化辞から作られる〕最上級の例について、用例を見た覚えはないけれども、どちらもPāṇiniによって説かれているから、許されないわけではないらしい（*1）。

（*1）
Whitney §473-c は、動詞形の比較級と最上級はどちらも「標準でない形」（barbarous forms）であるという。いかなる理由によってかは私にはわからない。それはもしかすると、Kālidāsaが標準でないサンスクリットを書いたからなのか、あるいはPāṇiniが〔Kālidāsa〕その人の言語における語法をよく知らなかったから、であろうか？

250. than with the comparative.

Than with the comparative is expressed by the ablative, see 105. But the particles na, na ca, na tu, na punaḥ are also used for that purpose, especially with varam. Kathâs. 29, 113 mṛtyurmam śreyān na śīlaviplavaḥ (death is better for me than parting with my virtue); Panc. 213 varam anārambho na cārambhavighātaḥ (not beginning at all is better than ceasing after having commenced); ibid. I, 451 paṇḍito ‘pi varaṃ śatrur na mūrkho hitakārakaḥ (a wise foe is even preferable to a foolish friend) (*1).

(*1)
In a well-known passage of the Hitop. (p. I, 8) varam is construed with na ca but not followed by a nomin., as one might expect, but by the instrumental:
caram eko guṇo putro na ca mūrkhaśatair api / ekaś candrastamo hanti na ca tārāgaṇair api
The instrum. must be that, which expresses: equivalent to; exchangeable for. »Better is one virtuous son, and [»not to be given up for,” that is] outweighing even hundreds of stupid ones; one moon dispels the darkness, outweighing even crowds of stars.” Cp. 70.

250. 比較級を伴う「～より」（than）

比較級を伴う「～より」（than）は、abl.で表現される（105をみよ）。けれども、不変化辞na、na ca、na tu、na punaḥは、特にvaramを伴って、そのためにも用いられる（*1）。
Kathâs. 29, 113 mṛtyurmam śreyān na śīlaviplavaḥ (death is better for me than parting with my virtue)
Panc. 213 varam anārambho na cārambhavighātaḥ (not beginning at all is better than ceasing after having commenced)
ibid. I, 451 paṇḍito ‘pi varaṃ śatrur na mūrkho hitakārakaḥ (a wise foe is even preferable to a foolish friend)

（*1）
Hitop. (p. I, 8)の有名な一節では、varamはna caと結びついて用いられるが、〔そのあとに〕nom.は続かない。が、inst.は続く。
caram eko guṇo putro na ca mūrlhaśatair api / ekaś candrastamo hanti na ca tārāgaṇair api
»Better is one virtuous son, and [»not to be given up for,” that is] outweighing even hundreds of stupid ones; one moon dispels the darkness, outweighing even crowds of stars.”
そのinst.は、「…に等しい」や「～と交換可能な」を意味するものに違いない。70をみよ。

251. Concurrent idioms, expressive of a high degree.

A high degree may be expressed also by several other idiomatic phrases, as:

1. by -kalpa(*1), -deśya, -deśīya, -prāya, see 229, 5th in as much as they are a concurrent idiom of the comparative in one of its meanings:

2. by putting bahu- or parama- before. Panc. I, 191 janāpavāde jagati bahucitre (slander being rather manifold in the world); R. 3, 53, 1 janakātmajā duḥkhitā paramodvignā; Mâlav. I, p. 10 some female is said to be paramanipuṇā medhāvinī ca. Properly bahu- means »tolerably, nearly” see P. 5, 3, 68, parama- »exceedingly.”

3. by such phrases as priyāt priyataram (liter. »dearer than dear” = the very dearest), sukhāt sukhataram; Mahâv. I, p. 21 priyāt priyataraṃ naḥ (we are exceedingly rejoiced at it); Panc. 326 vegād vegataraṃ gacchati (247).

4. by putting the word twice, see 252.

5, by adding -rūpa, see 229, 6th.

(*1)
pacati kalpam and the like are among the examples of the commentaries on P. 5, 3, 67. Cp. 249.

251. 高い度合いを表すイディオム

〔比較における〕高い度合いは、いくつかの他のイディオム的フレーズによっても表現されうる。以下のように：

1. -kalpa（*1）、-deśya、-deśīya、-prāyaを付加する。229-5をみよ。これらはその意味における比較の共起表現である。

2. bahu-、parama-を前分に付加する。正しくは、bahu-は「かなり、ほとんど」を意味する。P. 5, 3, 68をみよ。parama-は「きわめて」。
Panc. I, 191 janāpavāde jagati bahucitre (slander being rather manifold in the world)
R. 3, 53, 1 janakātmajā duḥkhitā paramodvignā
Mâlav. I, p. 10 some female is said to be paramanipuṇā medhāvinī ca

3. priyāt priyataram（文字通りにはdearer than dear＝the very dearest）やsukhāt sukhataramのようなフレーズを用いる。
Mahâv. I, p. 21 priyāt priyataraṃ naḥ (we are exceedingly rejoiced at it)
Panc. 326 vegād vegataraṃ gacchati (247)

4. 同じ語を二度繰り返す。252をみよ。

5. -rūpaを付加する。229-6をみよ。

（*1）
pacati kalpam等がP. 5, 3, 67.の注釈における例文中にある。249をみよ。

252. Putting a word twice.

For different reasons a word may be put twice, either when put two times as a separate word, as śanaiḥ śanaiḥ, or when making up some kind of compound, as puṭupuṭuḥ(*1).

1. Adjectives may be put twice, the two making but one word, in order to signify our „—like,” „rather.”

Daç. 149 kṣāmakṣāmāpi devatānubhāvād anatikṣīṇavarṇāvakāśā sīmantinī (a woman, who though [of a] rather thin [aspect] had by divine power not too much lost of the brightness of her colour), R. 3, 67, 14 taṃ dīnadīnayā vācā…abhyabhāṣata, Panc. II, 50 bhītabhītaḥ purā śatrur mandaṃ visarpati (in the beginning a foe sneaks along very slowly, as one being rather afraid). So ekaika, when = „alone,” and cp. such phrases, as pūrvaṃ pūrvaṃ puṣpyante, prathamaṃ prathamaṃ pacyante (they blossom—, they ripen the very first)(*2). Instances of adverbs put twice are not rare, as śanaiḥ śanaiḥ (slowly, by degrees), muhur muhuḥ (repeatedly), punaḥ punaḥ (again and again), etc. Daç. 172 śālīn… mṛdu mṛdu gharṣayantī.

2. In the same way substantives, gerunds, participles when put twice, may indicate the non-interruption of some time or action. {P. 8, 1, 4.} R. 3, 10, 5 kālakāleṣu (in uninterrupted time), Mâlav. IV, p. 105 pathi nayanayoḥ sthitvā sthitvā tirobhavati kṣaṇāt (at the very moment she is standing on the path of my looks, she suddenly disappears), Daç. 95 ahaṃ rāgamañcaryāḥ…sānunayaṃ pāyitāyāḥ punaḥ punaḥ praṇayasamarpitamukham adhugaṇḍūṣam āsvādam āsvādaṃ madenāspṛśye.

3. Moreover, putting a word twice is also often a proper means for signifying a distributive sense (vîpsâ). {P. 8, 1, 4.} Instances of this idiom are frequent. Kâç. on P. 8. 1, 4 puruṣaḥ puruṣaḥ nidhanam upaiti (every man is mortal), Panc. 42 pade pade praskhalan (stumbling at every footstep), Daç. 99 ahar ahaś ca navanavāni prābhṛtāny upaharantī (offering [her] always new presents day after day), ibid. 216 ṣaṇmāse ṣaṇmāse piccham ekaikaṃ parityajanti (every sixth month they lose one single feather); R. 2, 91, 53 apy ekam ekaṃ puruṣaṃ pramadāḥ sapta cāṣṭa ca samāpetuḥ (singulos viros septenae vel octonae mulieres appetierunt), Âpast. Dh. 1, 13, 18 saṃvatsare saṃvatsare dvau dvau māsī samāhita ācāryakule vaset, M. 2, 20 svaṃ svaṃ caritraṃ śikṣeran (they must learn every one his own duty). So diśi diśi (in every region), ahar ahaḥ (day after day) and so on. This idiom is as old as the Vaidik dialect. It is also used of gerunds. Pat. I, p. 44 maṇḍūkā utpnutyotpnutya gacchanti.

Here as a rule the case-endings of the former member remain.

(*1)
Pâṇini deals with this idiom at the commencement of his eighth adhyâya. (8, 1, 1-15). In interpreting sûtra. 9, the commentaries are wrong accepting it as teaching the formation of the word ekaika. The sûtra ekaṃ bahuvrīhivat cannot have this purport; its literal sense is »if a unity, [it is] bahuvrîhilike.” If Pâṇini had meant the word ekaika, he would have written ekasya not as he does ekam; cp. the constant genitives in sûtra 5-8. Our sûtra refers to the cases, mentioned by s. 4-8. There the employment is taught of the »two (dve)” spoken of in 8, 1, 1. Sûtra 9 teaches, how these two are to be accepted, for it says: »[but these two may be] one; then the whole is as if a bahuvrîhi”, likewise in the case of s. 10. But from s. 11 the unity is as if a karmadhâraya. Pâṇini’s words in 9-11 are: ekaṃ bahuvrīhivat / ābādhe ca / karmadhārayavad uttareṣu. From the conclusion of Kâç. on P.’s sûtra 9 I infer that the right interpretation had been proposed by somebody, but that it has been objected to by Patañjali. On the other hand, such forms with distributive sense as pūrvapūrvaḥ being by necessity instances of the idiom, taught P. 8, 1, 4 afford some evidence for my own acceptation.

(*2)
See vârtt. 7 on P. 8, 1, 12 in the commentary of the Kâçikâ. Cp. also P. 8, 1, 13, which teaches to say sukhasukhena and priyapriyeṇa, when = »with all one's heart.”

252. 語の繰り返し

śanaiḥ śanaiḥのように単語を2回繰り返したり、あるいはpuṭupuṭuḥのように何かしらの種類の複合語を作ったり、異なる理由から、単語を2度繰り返しうる（*1）。

1. 英語でいう"-like"や"rather"を表すために、1つの単語として、形容詞は2度繰り返しうる。

Daç. 149 kṣāmakṣāmāpi devatānubhāvād anatikṣīṇavarṇāvakāśā sīmantinī (a woman, who though [of a] rather thin [aspect] had by divine power not too much lost of the brightness of her colour)
R. 3, 67, 14 taṃ dīnadīnayā vācā… abhyabhāṣata
Panc. II, 50 bhītabhītaḥ purā śatrur mandaṃ visarpati (in the beginning a foe sneaks along very slowly, as one being rather afraid)

ekaika（たった1つ, alone）やpūrvaṃ pūrvaṃ puṣpyante、prathamaṃ prathamaṃ pacyante (they blossom—, they ripen the very first)のような句をみよ（*2）。śanaiḥ śanaiḥ（ゆっくり、徐々に）、muhur muhuḥ（繰り返し）、punaḥ punaḥ（何度も）など、2度繰り返す副詞の例は稀ではない。
Daç. 172 śālīn…mṛdu mṛdu gharṣayantī

2. 同様に、2度繰り返される実名詞・遊離分詞・分詞は、何かしらの時間や行為の間断なきことを表す。{P. 8, 1, 4.}
R. 3, 10, 5 kālakāleṣu (in uninterrupted time)
Mâlav. IV, p. 105 pathi nayanayoḥ sthitvā sthitvā tirobhavati kṣaṇāt (at the very moment she is standing on the path of my looks, she suddenly disappears)
Daç. 95 ahaṃ rāgamañcaryāḥ… sānunayaṃ pāyitāyāḥ punaḥ punaḥ praṇayasamarpitamukham adhugaṇḍūṣam āsvādam āsvādaṃ madenāspṛśye

3. さらに、語を2度繰り返すことは、しばしば配分的な（distributive）（*訳注）意味（vīpsā）を表すのに適当な手段でもある。{P. 8, 1, 4.} この語法の例は頻繁にみられる。
Kâç. on P. 8. 1, 4 puruṣaḥ puruṣaḥ nidhanam upaiti (every man is mortal)
Panc. 42 pade pade praskhalan (stumbling at every footstep)
Daç. 99 ahar ahaś ca navanavāni prābhṛtāny upaharantī (offering [her] always new presents day after day)
ibid. 216 ṣaṇmāse ṣaṇmāse piccham ekaikaṃ parityajanti (every sixth month they lose one single feather)
R. 2, 91, 53 apy ekam ekaṃ puruṣaṃ pramadāḥ sapta cāṣṭa ca samāpetuḥ (singulos viros septenae vel octonae mulieres appetierunt)
Âpast. Dh. 1, 13, 18 saṃvatsare saṃvatsare dvau dvau māsī samāhita ācāryakule vaset
M. 2, 20 svaṃ svaṃ caritraṃ śikṣeran (they must learn every one his own duty)

他にはdiśi diśi（あらゆる国々で）、ahar ahaḥ（来る日も来る日も）など。この語法はヴェーダ語と同じくらいに古い。また、遊離分詞としても用いられる。
Pat. I, p. 44 maṇḍūkā utpnutyotpnutya gacchanti

この場合、原則として、前分の格語尾が残存する。

（*1）
Pāṇiniは第8章のはじめにこの語法を扱っている（P. 8, 1, 1-15）。第9偈の解釈に関して、ekaikaの語の形成を説くとして、諸注釈は誤って認めている。件のsūtra：ekaṃ bahuvrīhivatは、「もし1つ〔に結びついている〕ならば、〔それは〕bahuvrīhi的である」という文字通りの趣旨を持ち得ないのである。もしPāṇiniがekaikaという語を意味していたならば、彼はekamとするのではなく、ekasyaと書いたであろう。5-8偈における一定の〔仕方で用いられている〕gen.と引き比べよ。
この偈は4-8偈で述べられたるケースを指す。そこでは、P. 8, 1, 1.に言われるdve（2）の使用法が説かれている。第9偈は、いかにしてこれら2つが認められるかを説く：「〔けれども、これら2つは〕1つのもの〔でありうる〕、その全体がbahuvrīhiである場合は」と。第10偈の場合も同様。
しかしながら、第11偈によれば、その〔「全体」の〕協同関係はkarmadhārayaであるかのように〔思われる〕。9-11偈においてPāṇiniはekaṃ bahuvrīhivat / ābādhe ca / karmadhārayavad uttareṣuと説く。Kāç.のP. 8, 1, 9に対する結論からして、このように私は推察する：〔Pāṇiniあるいはその先哲たちのうち〕誰かが正しい解釈をすでに提案したものの、それがPatañjaliにより異議を唱えられた、と。
一方で、pūrvapūrvaḥのような配分的（distributive）意味を伴う形態は、必然的にP. 8, 1, 4に説かれるところの慣用句の例であり、私の〔示したところの正しい〕意味のための証拠を与えてくれる。

（*2）
Kâç.の注釈中のP. 8, 1, 12についてのvârtt. 7をみよ。「心から」を表す場合のある行為の容易さを表す場合のsukhasukhenaとpriyapriyeṇaを述べるP. 8, 1, 13とも比較せよ。

（*訳注）
配分的（distributive）：Every sheet was taken. のように、ある集合の要素のそれぞれに述語となる語の属性を配分すること。

253. The type manus manum lavat and the like.

Sanskrit likes juxtaposition of different grammatical forms of the same word or of kindred words. Hence the type manus manum lavat is of course very common in Sanskrit. Mṛcch. I, p. 84 ratnaṃ ratnena saṃgacchate (pearls string with pearls), Vikram. II, p. 31 taptena taptamayasā ghaṭanāya yogyam; Pat. I, p. 233 vāso vāsaś chādayati (one cloth covers the other), Panc. 322 vanādvanaṃ paryaṭati (he rambles from forest to forest), ibid. 267 padāt padam api pracalituṃ na śaknoti, Daç. 61 kariṇaḥ kariṇam avaplutya (jumping from one elephant’s back on another).

253. manus manum lavat等様の形式

サンスクリットは、同じ語あるいは同類の語の異なる文法的形態を並置することを好む。しかしてサンスクリットでは、〔ラテン語における〕manus manum lavat（*訳注）と同じタイプは当然かなり一般的である。
Mṛcch. I, p. 84 ratnaṃ ratnena saṃgacchate (pearls string with pearls)
Vikram. II, p. 31 taptena taptamayasā ghaṭanāya yogyam
Pat. I, p. 233 vāso vāsaś chādayati (one cloth covers the other)
Panc. 322 vanādvanaṃ paryaṭati (he rambles from forest to forest)
ibid. 267 padāt padam api pracalituṃ na śaknoti
Daç. 61 kariṇaḥ kariṇam avaplutya (jumping from one elephant’s back on another)

（*訳注）
Seneca: Apocolocyntosis 9.
「〔一方の〕手が〔もう一方の〕手を洗うのである」→「片手なくして手は洗えない」、「相身互い」
manus: a hand; lavo: to wash

254.

Of a somewhat different nature is the type represented by R. 2, 12, 8 kiṃ kṛtaṃ tava rāmeṇa pāpe pāpam (what evil has Râma done to you, evil-minded woman?); cp. the Greek κακὸς κακῶς ἀπόλοιτο. Here the inclination towards homophony is still more pronounced than in the idiom of 253. Compare Mhbh. 1, 145, 14 tāṃstathāvādinaḥ paurān duḥkhitān duḥkhakarśitaḥ / uvāca (tristes tristis est allocutus oives); Kathâs. 38, 153 narasiṃhaḥ… taṃ… vṛtavān mitratvāya nṛpo nṛpam.

It is here not the place to expatiate upon this predilection of Sanskrit for bringing together words kindred in sound and playing with the different meanings inherent to them. Nearly all literary documents from the Vedas to our days afford the most ample evidence of it. For this reason, one must always be prepared to have to deal with riddles and the most various kinds of quibbles and puns. More information on this subject is to be given by works on Sanskrit rhetoric and Sanskrit literature.

254. 承前

やや異なる性質のものは、R. 2, 12, 8 kiṃ kṛtaṃ tava rāmeṇa pāpe pāpam（悪い〔女〕よ、Rāmaが何かあなたに悪い〔こと〕をしたか？）に代表される；古代ギリシャ語のκακὸς κακῶς ἀπόλοιτο（*訳注）と比較せよ。ここでの同音への傾倒は、253に挙げた慣用句よりもなお顕著である。
Mhbh. 1, 145, 14 tāṃstathāvādinaḥ paurān duḥkhitān duḥkhakarśitaḥ / uvāca (tristes tristis est allocutus oives)
Kathâs. 38, 153 narasiṃhaḥ… taṃ… vṛtavān mitratvāya nṛpo nṛpam

ここはサンスクリットの、音の似通った言葉を集めそれらに内在するさまざまな意味を翫弄する、という傾向について詳説する場ではない。〔とはいえ、〕ヴェーダから現代に至るまでほとんどすべての文学文献が、そのかなり十分な証拠を与えている。そのためには、常になぞなぞや様々な種類のこじつけや語呂合わせに対処しなければならないことを覚悟しておかなければならない。この議題に関する詳細は、サンスクリットの修辞学と文学作品によって与えられるべきである。

（*訳注）
ΑΛΚΙΦΡΩΝ: Επιστολές Αγροτικές (ALCIPHRON, Letters 2. Letters of Farmers); Libanios: Oratio 64, 44?
「完全に悪しき悪人」→「いと悪しき」
κακὀς: bad, worthless, useless; -ως: badly, miserably, maliciously; απόλυτος: absolute, complete, total

255. Putting the words yathâsaṃkhyam.

It may be of some use to mention here the figure yathâsaṃkhyam (*1), as it is employed not rarely and as its nature should be called rather grammatical than rhetorical. By it a series of substances named together with a series of attributes or predicates are so to be understood that the first substance is to be construed with the first predicate or attribute, the second with the second and so on successively. R. 3, 40, 12 agner indrasya somasya yamasya varuṇasya ca / auṣṇayaṃ tathā vikramaṃ ca saumyaṃ daṇḍaṃ prasannatām / dhārayanti mahātmāno rājānaḥ (the kings possess the qualities of the five devas, Agni etc., viz. the glow [aushnya] of Agni, the strength [vikrama] of lndra, etc.), Âpast. Dh. 1, 5, 8 yatkiṃ ca manasā vācā cakṣuṣā vā saṃkalpayandhyāyatyāhābhivipśyati vā = yatkiṃ ca manasā saṃkalpayandhyāyati vācā saṃ- āha cakṣuṣā vā saṃ- abhivipaśyati (whatsoever he, desirous to accomplish it, thinks in his mind or pronounces in words or looks upon with his eye).

(*1)
I borrow that designation from P. 1, 3, 10, which s. may be compared.

255. 順番の語（yathāsaṃkhyam）の配置

使用が稀ではないこと、またその性質を修辞的というより文法的というべきことから、ここで〔Pāṇiniの述べる「規則が、等しい数の代置物と被代置物を含むとき、それらの相互の対応関係やそれぞれへの代入は、列挙の順序に従う」という〕yathāsaṃkhyamの形式（*1）について言及することが必要でもあろう。一連の形容詞や述語を伴って指示される一連のモノ（substance）について、1番目のモノは1番目の、2番目のモノは2番目の、……述語や形容詞と共に解釈される、と理解されたい。
R. 3, 40, 12 agner indrasya somasya yamasya varuṇasya ca / auṣṇayaṃ tathā vikramaṃ ca saumyaṃ daṇḍaṃ prasannatām / dhārayanti mahātmāno rājānaḥ (the kings possess the qualities of the five devas, Agni etc., viz. the glow [aushnya] of Agni, the strength [vikrama] of lndra, etc.)
Âpast. Dh. 1, 5, 8 yatkiṃ ca manasā vācā cakṣuṣā vā saṃkalpayandhyāyatyāhābhivipśyati vā = yatkiṃ ca manasā saṃkalpayandhyāyati vācā saṃ- āha cakṣuṣā vā saṃ- abhivipaśyati (whatsoever he, desirous to accomplish it, thinks in his mind or pronounces in words or looks upon with his eye)

（*1）
私はこの呼称をP. 1, 3, 10から借用している。