Chapt. II. On voices.

第2章 態(voice)について

314. The three voices of the Sanskrit verb. - Sanskrit Syntax of J. S. Speijer

314. The three voices of the Sanskrit verb.

The Sanskrit verb has three voices: the active (parasmaipadam), the medial (ātmanepadam) and the passive. Of these, the active is formally different from the other two, but the medial and passive voices have many forms in common. The perfect cakre may be = „he made [for himself]” as well as „he was made,” the future dhariṣyate is either „he will bear [for himself]” or „he will be home. (*1)” But in the present and its system (present, imperfect, potential or optative, imperative, participle of the present) each voice has a different formal expression, kurute etc. serving exclusively for the medium but kriyate again having exclusively a passive meaning.

(*1)
Cp. f. i. Mhbh. 1, 159, 6 the future paritrāsye (I shall rescue) with Daç. 96 paritrāsyete (those two will be rescued) or Mhbh. 1, 188, 18 jagṛhe cārjuno dhanuḥ (and Arjuna took the bow) with Kathâs. 71, 34 sa tayā kaṇṭhe jagṛhe (he was embraced by her). It would be an interesting subject-matter for inquiry to draw a stasistical account of the common forms of the âtmanepadam with respect to their being used with a medial and with a passive meaning. It seems, indeed, that of several verbs these forms, especially the perfect, have the tendency of conveying exclusively a medial meaning, whereas some others seem to be exclusively passives. Before, however, such as account from standard authors will have been made, it would be premature to state something with certainty on this head.

314. サンスクリットの動詞における3つの態

サンスクリットの動詞には、能動態(parasmaipada; P.)、中動態・反射態(ātmanepada; A.)、受動態(Pass.)、の3つの態がある。これらのうち、能動態は他の2つと形式的に異なるが、中動態と受動態には共通形が多い。完了(perfect; Pf.)のcakre=「彼は〔自身のために〕作った」は「彼は作られた」でもあり得るし、未来(future; Fut.)のdhariṣyateは「彼は〔自身のために〕耐えるだろう」か「彼は家にいるだろう」のどちらかである(*1)。けれども、現在形とその組織(現在-present、半過去-imperfect, 可能-potential/願望-optative、命令-imperative、現在分詞-participle of the present)において、それぞれの態は異なる形式を持ち、〔例えば〕kuruteなどは専ら中動態〔を表すこと〕に資するが、kriyateは専ら受動的意味を持つ。

(*1)
Mhbh. 1, 159, 6 the future paritrāsye (I shall rescue)
Daç. 96 paritrāsyete (those two will be rescued)
Mhbh. 1, 188, 18 jagṛhe cārjuno dhanuḥ (and Arjuna took the bow)
Kathâs. 71, 34 sa tayā kaṇṭhe jagṛhe (he was embraced by her)

中動態あるいは受動態で用いられているātmanepadaの一般形について統計学的説明を行うのは、興味深い主題であろう。確かに、これらの動詞形のいくつか、特にPf.は専ら中動態の意味を伝達するようであるが、他のいくつかは専ら受動態のようである。けれども、権威ある著述家からの説明を待たずにこの題目に対して何事かを言うのは時期尚早であろう。

315. - Sanskrit Syntax of J. S. Speijer

315.

The participle in -ta may have a passive, an intransitive and a transitive meaning, as will be shown afterwards. See 360.

Passive aorist in -i and the tenses derived from it.

Apart from the system of the present, it is but one single form, viz. the 3d pers. of the sing. of the aorist — as akāri, astāvi which exclusively serves for the passive.

Rem. At the outset even this aorist in -i was a medial tense. See Whitney § 845 and Delbrück Altind. Tempuslehre p. 53 aceti, p. 54 adarśi etc. Pâṇini teaches an intransitive employment for apādi (has arisen, — come forth), adīpi (has shone), ajani (was born), abodhi (has awaked), apūri (has grown full), atāyi (has extended), apyāyi (has grown big). {P. 3, 1, 60; 61.} In classic literature apādi is not rare. Kathâs. 42, 134 rakṣo vyapādi (the giant died).

315. 分詞-taと受動aorist:-i

分詞-taは、後で示すように、受動と自動詞と他動詞の意味を持ち得る。360をみよ。

○受動aorist:-iとそこから派生する時制

現在組織を別にして、Pass.としてのみ働く、akāriastāviのようなaor.sg.3rd.は単一の形式しかない。

【補足】
当初はこの-iアオリストも中動態であった。Whitney §845、およびDelbrück Altind. Tempuslehre p. 53のacetiの項、p. 54のadarśiの項などをみよ。Pāṇiniは以下の-iアオリストの自動詞的用法を説いている(P. 3, 1, 60; 61):apādi(現れた、出てきた)、adīpi(輝いた)、ajani(生まれた)、abodhi(起きた)、apūri(成長しきった)、atāyi(伸びた)、apyāyi(大きくなった)。古典サンスクリットではapādiは稀ではない。
Kathâs. 42, 134 rakṣo vyapādi (the giant died)

316. - Sanskrit Syntax of J. S. Speijer

316.

From this 3d person in -i, however, it is allowed to derive several passive tenses of all such roots, as end in a vowel, moreover of grah and dṛś, see Whitney § 998 d. {P. 6, 4, 62.} So f. i. drakṣyate, the common future âtman. of dṛś may sometimes have a passive meaning, sometimes it is medial, but the future darśiṣyate — derived from adarśi — cannot be used except in a passive sense. In practice, these tenses of an exclusively passive meaning seem to be very rare. Daç. 132 mantriṇāham abhayadhāyiṣi (I was addressed by the minister), ibid. 183 kayāpi divyākārayā kanyayopāsthāyiṣi.

316. -iのAor.3rd.から派生する受動態の動詞

しかし、この-iの3rd.から、母音で終わるあらゆる語根(と√grah√dṛś)の受動態〔の動詞〕のいくつかを導くことが許されている(P. 6, 4, 62)。Whitney §998-dをみよ。よって例えば、√dṛśの共通のA. Fut.であるdrakṣyateは時に受動の意味を持ち、時には中動態でもあるが、〔別の〕adarśiから派生するFut.のdarśiṣyateは受動の意味以外には用いることができない。実際には、これら受動態の意味に限られる時制はかなり稀なようである。
Daç. 132 mantriṇāham abhayadhāyiṣi (I was addressed by the minister)
ibid. 183 kayāpi divyākārayā kanyayopāsthāyiṣi

317. Differences between the active voice and the medial. - Sanskrit Syntax of J. S. Speijer

317. Differences between the active voice and the medial.

The difference between the active voice and the medial is for the greater part only a formal one, at least in the classic language. Many verbs are used in the parasmaipadam, but not in the âtmanepadam, and inversely. The special rules, given for this by grammar (P. 1, 3, 17 sqq.), do not belong to Syntax. Even if the same root is employed in both voices, it is not always difference of meaning, that discriminates them; in poetry, for inst., particularly in epic poetry, an other voice than the legitimate one is often admissible for metrical reasons.

Compare the fact, that sometimes the same verb is a parasmai. in one tense and an âtmanep. in another. So mriyate (he dies), but the future is mariṣyati.

317. 能動態-中動態間の差異

能動態と中動態の間の差異は、少なくとも古典サンスクリットにおいては、大部分が形式的なものでしかない。多くの動詞は、parasmaipadaのみか、あるいはātmanepadaのみで用いられる。文法(P. 1, 3, 17以下)により与えられた特例はシンタックスには属さない。同じ語根が両方の態で用いられる場合であっても、それらを区別するのは必ずしも意味の違いではない:詩作品、例えば特に叙事詩の場合は、正しい態とは別の態が、韻律上の理由からしばしば認められる。

時に同じ動詞がある時制ではP.、別の時制ではA.である、という事実と引き比べよ。よって〔Pres.では〕mriyate(彼は死ぬ)であるものが、Fut.ではmariṣyatiとなる。

318. - Sanskrit Syntax of J. S. Speijer

318.

Nevertheless, the original difference between active and medial is not lost. Not only the grammarians, who have invented the terms parasmai padam and âtmane padam, but the language itself shows, it is well aware of it. Several verbs may be employed in both voices in this way, that one avails one’s self of the medial especially to denote „the fruit of the action being for the subject,” {P. 1, 3, 72 foll.} f. i. devadattaḥ pacate „N. N. cooks for himself,” but pacati, when it is to be told, he cooks for others. Of the causatives the medial voice serves always for that purpose: kaṭaṃ kārayate „he orders a mat to be made for his own behalf.” {P. 1, 3, 74.}

Proper sphere of the medium.

Within this proper sphere of the medium some distinctions may be made. The action may be done a.) by the subject himself in his own behalf, as Âpast. l, 26, 10 ete tribhir varṣair apa pāpaṃ nudante (they remove the sin from themselves —), b.) by order of the subject, likewise for himself; of the kind is the medium of yaj. yajate is said of the patron, who makes the priests officiate for himself and who obtains the fruit of the sacrifice, whereas the officiating priests yajanti, c.) so that the same person is both subject and object, as Ch. Up. 4, 4, 2 satyakāma eva jābālo bravīthāḥ (you must name yourself —). Compare with a.) such Greek medial verbs as πορίζομαι „I acquire for myself,” with b.) such as παιδεύομαι τὸν υἱὸν „I have my son instructed,” with c.) such as καλύπτομαι „I wrap myself.” Those in c.) are mere reflexives.

Instance of medial meaning conveyed by medial forms seem to be found especially in the older texts, yet they are not wanting in the classic literature.

a.) Pâr. 11 4, 12 a marriage-mantra contains the words paridhatsva vāsaḥ (put on the garment [yourself]), for paridhehi would mean „put it on another;” Ait. Br. 2, 11, 1 devā vai yajñāmatanvata [for their own benefit]; Kathâs. 42, 201 avṛnīta kāmārtā taṃ vidyādharakanyakā (she chose him [for her husband]) and in this meaning regularly vṛṇute, f. i. Kumâras. 6, 78; R. 1, 61, 21 rājaputra nayasva mām (prince, take me with you); Kathâs. 25, 232 — the king, being presented with a golden lotus, puts it into a silver vase, and says: I would I had another similar lotus to put it into the other silver vase — āsthāpayiṣye cāmuṣmindvitīye kalaśe’pi tat; — Pat. I, p. 281 uttapate pāṇī (he warms his hands), ibid. p. 282 āyacchate pāṇī (he stretches his hands); — Panc. 64 rājño’ntaḥ puraṃ jalakrīḍāṃ kurute (the king’s zenana are sporting in the water); Mhbh. 1, 175, 33 sā gauḥ… viśvāmitrasya tatsainyaṃ vyadrāvayata sarvaśaḥ.

b.) R. 2, 4, 22 Daçaratha says to his son Râma tatra puṣye’bhiṣiñcasva (have yourself anointed —), and so always with this verb;

c.) Âpast. 1, 6, 3 na cainam abhiprasārayīta (he shall not stretch out [his feet] towards him); Mhbh. 1, 121, 31 darśayaśva naravyāghra (show yourself, gallant prince); R. 1, 75, 3 mahaddhanuḥ / pūrayasva śareṇaiva svabalaṃ darśayasva ca.

Rem. 1. If a reflexive pronoun be added, one may use the active as well as the medial voice. {P. 1, 3, 77.}

Rem. 2. P. 1, 3, 68 teaches the use of the medial causatives bhīṣaye and vismāpaye when meaning: »I cause [you] to fear (wonder at) myself,” whereas the regular forms bhāyayati, vismāyayati have no reflexive meaning.

Rem. 3. Reciprocity may be denoted by compound verbs beginning by vyati-. These must be generally medial verbs. See P. 1, 3, 14-16 and Pat. I, p. 277.

318. 能動態-中動態間の差異

そうではあれ、能動態-中動態間の元々の差異は失われていない。parasmaipadaやātmanepadaの用語を発明した文法家だけでなく、言語それ自体が、そ〔の差異が〕認識されていることを示している。いくつかの動詞は、特に「結果が主語のためとなる行為」を表すために中動態のそれを利用するという仕方で、両方の態を用いることができる(P. 1, 3, 72以下):例えば、pacatiでなくdevadattaḥ pacate(D.は自らのために料理する)と言われる場合、彼は他の者のために料理する。Caus.に関しては、中動態は常にその目的を表す(P. 1, 3, 74):kaṭaṃ kārayate(彼は自らの益のために敷物を作らせる)

○中動態の適切な意味領域

中動態の適切な意味領域には、いくつかの区分ができる。
a.) ある行為が、主語の指示するその人によって、自身のために行われる場合:
Âpast. l, 26, 10 ete tribhir varṣair apa pāpaṃ nudante (they remove the sin from themselves —)

b.) ある行為が、主語の指示するその人の要請によって、彼のために行われる場合:
この類は√yajの中動態である。yajateは、祭官をして自らのために祭祀を行わさしめ、供犠の成果を得るところの後援者の言であるが、〔これが〕祭祀を行う祭官〔の言である場合〕はyajantiである。

c.) ある行為が、同じ人物を主語と目的語の両方とする場合:
Ch. Up. 4, 4, 2 satyakāma eva jābālo bravīthāḥ (you must name yourself —)

これらの区分について、a.)はπορίζομαι(私は自らのために要求する)、b.)はπαιδεύομαι τὸν υἱὸν(私は息子に教えてもらっている)、c.)はκαλύπτομαι(私は自身を隠している)、という古代ギリシャ語の表現と比較せよ。c.)のものは単なる再帰動詞である。

中動態の形式によって表される中動的意味の例は特に古い文献に見いだされるが、古典サンスクリットの文献に不足しているわけではない。

a.)
Pâr. 11 4, 12 a marriage-mantra contains the words paridhatsva vāsaḥ (put on the garment [yourself]), for paridhehi would mean ,,put it on another’’
Ait. Br. 2, 11, 1 devā vai yajñāmatanvata [for their own benefit]
Kathâs. 42, 201 avṛnīta kāmārtā taṃ vidyādharakanyakā (she chose him [for her husband])(この意味ではふつうvṛṇuteが用いられる(Kumâras. 6, 78))
R. 1, 61, 21 rājaputra nayasva mām (prince, take me with you)
Kathâs. 25, 232 — the king, being presented with a golden lotus, puts it into a silver vase, and says: I would I had another similar lotus to put it into the other silver vase — āsthāpayiṣye cāmuṣmindvitīye kalaśe ’pi tat
Pat. I, p. 281 uttapate pāṇī (he warms his hands)
ibid. p. 282 āyacchate pāṇī (he stretches his hands)
Panc. 64 rājño’ntaḥ puraṃ jalakrīḍāṃ kurute (the king’s zenana are sporting in the water)
Mhbh. 1, 175, 33 sā gauḥ… viśvāmitrasya tatsainyaṃ vyadrāvayata sarvaśaḥ

b.)
R. 2, 4, 22 Daçaratha says to his son Râma: tatra puṣye ’bhiṣiñcasva (have yourself anointed —)
常にこの動詞が伴われる。

c.)
Âpast. 1, 6, 3 na cainam abhiprasārayīta (he shall not stretch out [his feet] towards him)
Mhbh. 1, 121, 31 darśayaśva naravyāghra (show yourself, gallant prince)
R. 1, 75, 3 mahaddhanuḥ / pūrayasva śareṇaiva svabalaṃ darśayasva ca

【補足1】
再帰代名詞が付加される場合には、中動態と同じように能動態が用いられうる(P. 1, 3, 77)。

【補足2】
P. 1, 3, 68は中動態のCaus.で「私は〔あなたに〕私を恐ろしい〔と思わ〕せる」を意味するbhīṣayevismāpayeを教えているが、その通常の形態であるbhāyayativismāyayatiは、再帰的意味を持たない。

【補足3】
相互関係はvyati-で始まる複合動詞で表されうる。これらはふつう中動態でなければならない。P. 1, 3, 14-16およびPat. I, p. 277をみよ。

319. Passive voice. - Sanskrit Syntax of J. S. Speijer

319. Passive voice.

The passive voice is much used in Sanskrit both personally and impersonally, as has been pointed out 7 and 8. {P. 3, 1, 87.}

Moreover it serves to signify such intransitive actions as the rice balls, the wood splits pacyata odanam / bhidyate kāṣṭham(*1), whereas „I boil the rice, I split the wood” is expressed by the active voice odanaṃ pacāmi / kāṣṭhaṃ bhinadmi(*2). Pat. II, p.14 kulasya pipatiṣato loṣṭāḥ śīryante (from a river-bank, which is about to give way, lumps of earth are breaking off), Kumâras. 4, 5 na vidīrye (v. a. my heart does not break); Kathâs. 25, 45 vahanaṃ samabhajyata (the vessel burst), Çat. Br. 1, 5, 4, 5 pra vanaspatīnāṃ phalāni mucyante (the fruits fall down from the trees). Of the kind are dṛśyate (to appear, to seem), upacoyate (to increase), apacīyate (to decrease), yujyate (to suit, to be fit) and the like.

Rem. 1. It is not allowed, however, to use that intransitive passive of all verbs. Pâṇini excepts the roots duh, snu and nam. {P. 3, 1, 88.} One says dugdhe — not duhyategauḥ svayam eva, namate — not namyatedaṇḍaḥ svayam eva »the cow is milking; the stick bends.” Patañjali extends the exception to others, especially to all causatives, and mentions a vârttika of the Bhâradvâjîyas which enumerates even a larger list of exceptions. This statement of the Bhâradvâjîyas has been accepted by the Kâçikâ. At all events, this much is certain, that of several verbs the medial voice has also an intrans. meaning. A concurrence of medial and passive is taught by P. 3, 1, 62 and 63 for the aorist of roots ending in a vowel and also of duh; with intransitive meaning it may be said akāri or akṛta, adohi and adugdha, f. i. akāri or akṛta kaṭaḥ svayameva.

On the other hand, the pure reflexive — 318 c) — is occasionally expressed by a passive; especially mucyate „to release one’s self.” R. 3, 69, 39 parimucyasva rāghava.

Rem. 2. Note the idiom tapyate tapastāpasaḥ, a passive with etymological object. {P. 3, 1, 89.} See f. i. M. 2, 167.

(*1)
The passive, when personal, is styled karmaṇi (expressive of the object), when impersonal, bhāve (express. of the state), see P. 1, 3, 13; 3, 1, 67. When having an intransitive or reflexive meaning, it is styled karmakartari (express. of both subject and object).

(*2)
Yet one likewise says f. i. sādhu sthālī pacati (the pot boils well), cp. Kâç. on P, 3, 1, 87.

319. 受動態

受動態(passive voice)は、7および8で指摘したように、サンスクリットにおいて人称・非人称ともに多く用いられる(P. 3, 1, 87)。

更に、pacyata odanam(調理されたる米飯=ライスボール)、bhidyate kāṣṭham(割かれた木=薪)のような自動詞的行為をも表す(*1)。一方で、「私は米を炊く」や「私は木を割る」を意味する場合は、能動態のodanaṃ pacāmikāṣṭhaṃ bhinadmiで表現する(*2)。
Pat. II, p.14 kulasya pipatiṣato loṣṭāḥ śīryante (from a river-bank, which is about to give way, lumps of earth are breaking off)
Kumâras. 4, 5 na vidīrye (v. a. my heart does not break)
Kathâs. 25, 45 vahanaṃ samabhajyata (the vessel burst)
Çat. Br. 1, 5, 4, 5 pra vanaspatīnāṃ phalāni mucyante (the fruits fall down from the trees)

この類のものにはdṛśyate(現れる、見られる)、upacoyate(増える)、apacīyate(減る)、yujyate(合う、適する)などがある。

【補足1】
けれども、すべての動詞のA. Pass.を用いることは許されない。Pāṇiniは√duh√snu√namの語根を除外している(P. 3, 1, 88)。よってdugdhe gauḥ svayam eva(牛が乳をやる;duhyateでない)、namate daṇḍaḥ svayam eva(杖が曲がる;namyateでない)となる。Patañjaliは、特にあらゆるCaus.などに例外を拡大しており、また、更に大きな例外のリストを列挙するBhāradvājīyaのvārttikaに言及している。このBhāradvājīyaの議論はKāśikāにも追認されている。いずれにしても、いくつかの動詞のうち、中動態にも自動詞の意味があることだけは確かである。中動態と受動態の〔意味の上の〕一致は、P. 3, 1, 62-63に、母音で終わる語根とduhのaor.について述べられている;自動詞の意味を伴って、akāri / akṛtaadohi / adugdhaなど、例としてはakāri (akṛta) kaṭaḥ svayam evaとなる。一方で、純粋な再帰(318c)は時に受動態によって表現される;特にmucyate(自身を解放する)。
R. 3, 69, 39 parimucyasva rāghava

【補足2】
同族目的語(etymological object)を伴うPass.のイディオム、tapyate tapastāpasaḥに注意せよ(P. 3, 1, 89)。例はM. 2, 167をみよ。

(*1)
非人称でない動詞の受動態はkarmaṇi(目的の表現)、非人称はbhāve(状態の表現)と呼ばれる。P. 1, 3, 13および3, 1, 67をみよ。自動詞的、あるいは再帰的意味を持つ場合にはkarmakartari(主語と目的語の表現)と呼ばれる。

(*2)
けれども、同様にsādhu sthālī pacati(その鍋は良く煮る)ともできる。Kâç. on P, 3, 1, 87をみよ。

320. Intransitives how expressed. - Sanskrit Syntax of J. S. Speijer

320. Intransitives how expressed.

Intransitives are often expressed also by the verbs of the so-called fourth class of conjugation, which chiefly comprises roots with intransitive meaning, as krudhyati, hṛṣyati, sidhyati, bhraśyati. For the rest, intransitive meaning is by no means restricted to a special set of forms and may be conveyed by any. So f. i. svap „to sleep” is formally an active svapiti, śo „to lie” a medial śete, mṛ „to die” a passive mriyate.

The difference of accentuation which exists between the verbs of the 4th class and the passives, must not blind us to the incontestable fact of their close connection. At the outset; there is likely to have been one conjugation in -yati -yate with intransitive function, whence both the 4th class and the passive have sprung. Nor is it possible, even in accentuated texts, to draw everywhere with accuracy the boundary-line between them, see Whitney § 761, especially b.) and c.) and 762, cp. also the rule of P. 6, 11 195. — The old language, especially the dialect of the Mahâbhârata, affords many instances of passive forms with the endings of the parasmaipadam, even with passive meaning. See f. i. Mhbh. 1, 24, 15; 38, 13; 51, 9; 102, 23; Nala. 20, 31 etc. (*1).

(*1)
P. 3, 1, 90 mentions two roots, which are verbs of the 4th class, parasmaipada, when being used as intransitive-reflexives, whereas they are otherwise conjugated, when transitives. But Pâṇini expressly states that the eastern grammarians teach so, the passive of them may, therefore, be also employed, f. i. kuṣyati or kuṣyate pādaḥ svayameva (the foot strikes), rajyati or rajyate vastraṃ svayameva (the garment is dying). Utt. V, p. 102 netre svayaṃ rajyataḥ.

320. 自動詞の表現法

自動詞(intransitive)はしばしば、主に自動詞的意味をもつ語根から構成される、第4類の活用をする動詞によって表現される;√krudh√hṛṣ√sidh√bhraṃśなど。それ以外のものに関しては、自動詞的意味は特別な形に限らず、どのような形でも伝達されうる。よって例えば、√svap(眠る)は能動態でsvapiti√śo(横たわる)は中動態でśete√mṛ(死ぬ)は受動態でmriyateとなる。

第4類と受動活用の動詞の間に存在するアクセントの差異について、それらが密接に結びついているという明白な事実に囚われてはならない。もとは自動詞の機能をもつ-yati-yateの活用があったらしく、そこから第4類と受動活用が生じたのである。また、アクセントが記述されたテキストにあっても、それらの間の境界線を正確に描くことは不可能である。Whitney §761、特にb.)とc.)と762、またP. 6, 11 195の規則をみよ。古いサンスクリット、特にMahābhārataの言葉は、受動的意味でparasmaipadaの語尾を持った受動形〔の動詞〕の例を多く与えてくれる。Mhbh. 1, 24, 15、1, 38, 13、1, 51, 9、1, 102, 23およびNala. 20, 31などをみよ(*1)

(*1)
P. 3, 1, 90はP.で第4類・自動詞-再帰動詞として用いられる動詞語根を2つ挙げるが、これらは他動詞である場合、別の仕方で活用する。しかしPāṇiniは、東方の文法家がそのように教えている、と明言しているため、これらの受動活用も用いられうる;例えば、〈kuṣyati / kuṣyate〉 pādaḥ svayam eva(足が蹴る)、〈rajyati / rajyate〉 vastraṃ svayam eva(服がだめになる)など。
Utt. V, p. 102 netre svayaṃ rajyataḥ