394.

After treating the syntax of nouns and verbs, we now come to the words which are devoid of inflection. Part of them, indeed, have already been dealt with, viz. the adverbs in Ch. I of the Third, and the prepositions in Ch. IX of the Second Section. The rest are the so-called particles, most of them old little words as ca, hi, vā, iva, api, whereas some others, as kāmam, tāvat, param, are petrified noun-cases. As to the employment of the particles, they serve different purposes, but they may be brought under two general heads: modality and connection. When modal, they are expressive of emphasis, negation, interrogation, exclamation and the like, when connective they are wanted to connect either whole sentences or parts of them. The distinction between these two classes of particles is, however, not an essential one. The same word may be sometimes a modal, sometimes a connective. So api may be a particle of interrogation, but also of copulation, vā commonly a disjunctive, serves occasionally to express emphasis. And so on.

Sanskrit likes putting together and even combining two or more particles.

394. 不変化辞の2分類

名詞と動詞の構文論を扱った後で、私たちは今、屈折のない語に至った。それらのうち一部は既に扱った。すなわち、第3部1章-副詞、第2部9章-前置詞である。残りはいわゆる不変化辞（particle）で、そのほとんどはca、hi、vā、iva、apiのようなごく古い語であるが、kāmam、tāvat、paramのような他のいくつかは、名詞-格が硬直したものである。不変化辞の使用について、これらは異なる目的に資するが、2つの項に分類できる：様相（modality）と接続（connection）である。様相の場合は強調・否定・疑問・感嘆などを表し、接続の場合は、文の全体、またはそれらの部分のいずれかを接続することを要する。これら2つの種類の不変化辞の間の区別は、実際には、本質的なものではない。同じ語が、様相を表すことも、接続を表すこともある。よって、apiは疑問詞であるが接続詞でもあり、ふつう選言（disjunctive）であるvāが強調を表すこともある、などなど。

サンスクリットは2つ以上の不変化辞を共に置いたり、組み合わせたりすることを好む。

395. Emphatic particles.

Affirmative sentences do not want to be marked as such by special particles, as is necessary with negative and interrogative sentences. Yet, strong affirmation, so-called emphasis, is expressed by such words as English indeed, surely, verily, viz. khalu, kila, nūnam, bāḍham, niyatam, satyam or in full yatsatyam. Of them, bāḍham and the rest rather bear the character of such adverbs, as „certainly, undoubtedly.” Mudr. VII, p. 223 yatsatyaṃ lajjita ivāsmi, Daç. 93 tvayā niyatam… aham apadeśyaḥ.

Rem. bāḍham is especially used in answers »yes, indeed”. Kathâs. 24, 67 one asks kañcit tvayā sā kanakapuro dṛṣṭā, the other answers bāḍhaṃ mayā sā nagarī dṛṣṭā. »Yes” is also tathā. Kathâs. 81, 19 the king asks his attendant to fetch him some water, the other answers tathā; in full, he would have said tathā kriyate yathājñāpayati devaḥ, of which sentence all but tathā is understood. Sometimes the relative sentence yathājñāpayati etc. is expressed, but the rest understood. — atha kim is also = »yes” (*1). Mudr, II, p. 78 na khalu viditāste nivasantaś cāṇakyahatakena / atha kim (Râxasa asks: the accursed Câṇakya does not know they dwell in Pâtalip., does he? Answ. Yes, he does).

(*1)
Literally, as it seems, »but how [do you doubt of it?]”. Cp. Latin Rogas?

395. 強調の不変化辞

肯定文は、否定文や疑問文で必要とされるような特別な不変化辞によって特徴づけられることを必要としない。けれども、強い肯定、いわゆる強調（emphasis）は、英語で言うところのindeed、surely、verilyのような語、すなわちkhalu、kila、nūnam、bāḍham、niyatam、satyam（yatsatyam）で表現される。これらのうち、bāḍham以下は「確かに」（certainly）や「疑う余地なく」（undoubtedly）のような副詞の性格をより持っている。
Mudr. VII, p. 223 yatsatyaṃ lajjita ivāsmi
Daç. 93 tvayā niyatam… aham apadeśyaḥ

【補足】
bāḍhamは特に応答（「はい」、「然り」）で用いられる。Kathâs. 24, 67では、ある者がkañcit tvayā sā kanakapuro dṛṣṭāと問い、別の者がbāḍhaṃ mayā sā nagarī dṛṣṭāと答えている。
「はい」はtathāでもありうる。Kathâs. 81, 19で、王がその侍従に水を取ってくるよう言うと、侍従はtathāで答える；全文では、その者はtathā kriyate yathājñāpayati devaḥと言っている。その文について、tathā以外の全てが〔一まとまりの文章として〕理解される。関係文のyathājñāpayati等が表現されることがあるが、〔その場合についてもyathā〕以外は理解される。—atha kimも肯定でありうる（*1）。
Mudr, II, p. 78 na khalu viditāste nivasantaś cāṇakyahatakena / atha kim (Râxasa asks: the accursed Câṇakya does not know they dwell in Pâtalip., does he? Answ. Yes, he does)

（*1）
文字通りには「けれども、どうして〔あなたはそれを疑うだろうか？〕」のように思われる。ラテン語の“rogas?”と比較せよ。

396.

nūnam, nanu, khalu, kila, nāma are the most frequent emphatic particles. The last three of them are not put at the head, but nūnam and nanu are usually the first word of the sentence, at least in prose. Daç. 130 nūnam asau prāṇaniḥspṛhaḥ kim api kṛcchraṃ prapitsate, Panc. 204 nanu svabhāvato ‘smākaṃ śatrubhūto ‘sti, Çâk. I ārye samyaganubodhito ‘smi / asminkṣaṇe khalu vismṛtaṃ mayaitat (— but now, indeed, I did not remember it), ibid. I tapovanasaṃnihitasattvarakṣaṇāyai sajjībhavantu bhavantaḥ / pratyāsannaḥ kila mṛgayāvihārī pārthivo duṣyantaḥ, Mudr. V, p. 173 adhikārapadaṃ nāma nirdoṣasyāpi puruṣasya mahadāśaṅkāsthānam.

nanu is properly an interrogative, which does duty as an emphatic (*1).

Rem. 1. The said emphatics are of course not wholly synonymous, the slight differences which exist between them, making it occasionally necessary to use one and to avoid another. It is also to be observed, that sometimes and in some degree the emphatics may act as a kind of connectives, in as far as they, too, are a means for linking sentences together. In the example quoted from Panc. 204, nanu may be called with some right a causal particle, likewise khalu and kila in the two, quoted from Çâk. I. On the other hand, the connective hi is sometimes a mere emphatic.

Rem. 2. Emphatic particles are sometimes used in an ironical sense, especially nāma and kila. See f. i. Kumâras. 5, 32.

(*1)
Yet nanu accompanies even the imperative. Kumâras. 4, 32 nanu māṃ pāpaya patyurantikam.

396. nūnam、nanu、khalu、kila、nāma

nūnam、nanu、khalu、kila、nāmaは最も頻繁な強調の不変化辞である。少なくとも散文にあっては、後ろの3つは文頭には置かれず、nūnamとnanuはふつう文の最初の語である。
Daç. 130 nūnam asau prāṇaniḥspṛhaḥ kim api kṛcchraṃ prapitsate
Panc. 204 nanu svabhāvato ‘smākaṃ śatrubhūto ‘sti
Çâk. I ārye samyaganubodhito ‘smi / asminkṣaṇe khalu vismṛtaṃ mayaitat (— but now, indeed, I did not remember it)
ibid. I tapovanasaṃnihitasattvarakṣaṇāyai sajjībhavantu bhavantaḥ / pratyāsannaḥ kila mṛgayāvihārī pārthivo duṣyantaḥ
Mudr. V, p. 173 adhikārapadaṃ nāma nirdoṣasyāpi puruṣasya mahadāśaṅkāsthānam

nanuは、正確には、強調語としてはたらく疑問詞である（*1）。

【補足1】
いわゆる強調語は、もちろん完全に同義語であるわけではなくて微妙な違いがあるから、場合によっては或るものを用い、他を避けねばならないことがある。強調語もまた文を結びつけるための手段であるという点で、時として、また程度によっては、一種の接続詞のようなはたらきをすることがあることも看取さるべきである。Panc. 204から引用された用例では、Çâk. Iから引用された2例におけるkhaluとkilaと同様に、nanuは、一定の適切さを伴って、原因を表す不変化辞と呼ばれる。一方で、接続のhiは時に単なる強調に過ぎないことがある。

【補足2】
強調の不変化辞、特にnāmaとkilaはアイロニカルな意味で用いられることがある。例としてはKumâras. 5, 32をみよ。

（*1）
けれども、nanuはIpv.をも伴う。
Kumâras. 4, 32 nanu māṃ pāpaya patyurantikam

397.

Ancient literature abounds in emphatic particles, many of which are obsolete in the classic dialect. Besides khalu, nāma, hi we meet in archaic and epic works with vai, ha, sma, nu, u, uta, vā. Often these little particles only slightly strengthen the sense, and rather serve either to enhance the dignity of the style or to fill up the metre.

Expletives.

Then we may call them expletives (*1). But they are not always used in this way, and each of them at the outset had its proper meaning.

Accumulation of them is not rare, as ha sma, ha vai, u khalu etc.

Rem. 1. vai is especially used to lay stress on the word immediately preceding. It is excessively frequent both in liturgical and in epic writings. Still Patañjali used it sometimes. Pat I, p. 107 akarmakā api vai sopasargāḥ sakarmakā bhavanti (nay, even intransitives become transitives, when compound). But afterwards it seems to be obsolete, at least in prose. — vā = vai is occasionally found in epic poetry.

Rem. 2. ha and uta are much liked at the end of a pâda, the former after a finite verb, uta in the phrase ity uta. But they may also have other places; ha is very frequent in the brâhmaṇas, well as in the epics. (*2)

Rem. 3. Some, as śaśvat and vāva, are found in the brâhmaṇas, but not in the epics. The emphatic and also restrictive particle aha is often met with in the mantras and in the Çatapathabr., cit, īm and kam are restricted to the mantras.

(*1)
And so does vernacular grammar. Even as ancient an author as Yâska knows of particles which serve pādapūraṇe.

(*2)
P. 8, 1, 60 mentions ha, when denoting disapproval at some infringement on good manners. Kâç. illustrates this rule a. o. by the example svayaṃ ha rathena yāti / upādhyāyaṃ padātiṃ gamayati. In this sense also aha is used [P, 8, 1, 61], moreover, when orders are given to different persons at the same time, f. i. tvam aha grāmaṃ gaccha / tvam ahāraṇyaṃ gaccha (Kâç.).

397. 虚辞

古代の文学作品は強調の不変化辞に富むが、その多くは古典サンスクリットでは廃れている。khalu、nāma、hiの他に、古い時代のものや叙事詩ではvai、ha、sma、nu、u、uta、vāがみられる。これらの不変化辞は、意味をほんの少しだけ強めたり、文体の品格を高めるか、あるいは韻律を充足させるために役立つ。

○虚辞

それを虚辞（expletive）と呼ぶ（*1）。が、それらは常にこの仕方で用いられるわけではなく、当初はその正しい意味を持っていた。

ha sma、ha vai、u khaluなど、これらが重ねられることも珍しくない。

【補足1】
vaiは特に直前の語を強調するために用いられる。祭儀書と叙事詩で頻繁である。Patañjaliも時折これを用いる。
Pat I, p. 107 akarmakā api vai sopasargāḥ sakarmakā bhavanti (nay, even intransitives become transitives, when compound)

けれども、少なくとも散文にあっては、後世には廃れている。vāと等しいvaiは時に叙事詩でもみられることがある。

【補足2】
haとutaはpādaの終わりに—前者は定動詞の後に、utaはity utaのフレーズに—置くことが、好まれる。が、これらは別の位置にも置かれる；ブラーフマナ文献において、haは叙事詩よりも頻繁である（*2）。

【補足3】
śaśvatやvāvaのような一部はブラーフマナ文献でみられるが、叙事詩にはみられない。強調・限定の不変化辞ahaは、しばしばマントラとŚatapatha-Brāhmaṇaで、cit、īmやkamはマントラのみに、みられる。

（*1）
土着文法でも同様。Yāskaのような古代の著述家でさえ、pādapūraṇe（詩の行や韻律を充たす場合）に資する不変化辞の存在を知っている。

（*2）
P. 8, 1, 60は、何らかの規範に背くことへの不服を表す場合のhaに言及する。Kâç.はこの規則等をsvayaṃ ha rathena yāti / upādhyāyaṃ padātiṃ gamayatiの用例で説明している。この意味においてはahaも用いられ（P, 8, 1, 61）、さらには、同時に別の人に命令が出される場合にも用いられる。
tvam aha grāmaṃ gaccha / tvam ahāraṇyaṃ gaccha (Kâç.)

398. eva.

The enclitic eva is put after a word, in order to denote: even this, not anything else. We may, therefore, call eva a restrictive. It is exceedingly frequent, being hardly ever omitted, when any stress, however slight, is to be laid on a word. Panc. 212 aham eva kariṣyāmi (I myself will do it), Mâlav. I, p. 18 sapratibandha kārya prabhuradhigantuṃ sahāyavān eva (one is able to undertake a difficult task, only with a companion), Çâk. I darśanenaiva bhavatīnāṃ puraskṛto ‘smi (the very sight of the ladies honours me), Panc. 186 nityam eva niśāgame sametyāsmatpakṣakadanaṃ karoti, Mhbh. 1, 168, 11 Hidimba forbids Bhîma to eat, but the other, not caring for this, continues eating rākṣasaṃ tamanādṛtya bhuṅkta eva parāṅmukhaḥ, Kathâs. 30, 3 sa tāṃ dṛṣṭvaiva rūpeṇa jagattritayamohinīm / kṣobhaṃ jagāma. As appears from the instances quoted, eva admits of manifold translations; it is often not translated at all. After pronouns it is sometimes = »the same, the very.” Nala. 2, 12 etasminn eva kāle (at that very time), Panc. 324 ekadaiva (at the same time). Cp. 277.

Rem. 1. In poetry eva is sometimes omitted, R. 3, 25, 89 nādadānaṃ śarān ghorān vimuñcantaṃ śarottamān / vikarṣamāṇaṃ paśyanti rākṣasāste śarārditāḥ, here the scholiast is right in expounding vikarṣamāṇam eva, »the râxasas did not see him charging his arrows nor discharging them, they saw him only keeping his bow bent [so swiftly Râma was shooting].” So Varâh. Yogay. 1, 18 bhavati daivayutasya siddhiḥ = bha- daivayutasyaiva siddhiḥ, cp. Kern’s annot. in the Ind. Stud. X, p. 200.

Rem. 2. In the mantras īm, it, cit, aha may do the duty of eva.

398. eva

前接語のevaは、「…さえ」（even this）、「…の他には何もない」（not anything else）を表すために語の後に置かれる。そこで我々はevaを限定詞（restrictive）と呼ぶ。これは非常に頻繁で、語が強調される場合、それがいかにわずかなものであっても、省略されることは滅多にない。
Panc. 212 aham eva kariṣyāmi (I myself will do it)
Mâlav. I, p. 18 sapratibandha kārya prabhuradhigantuṃ sahāyavān eva (one is able to undertake a difficult task, only with a companion)
Çâk. I darśanenaiva bhavatīnāṃ puraskṛto ‘smi (the very sight of the ladies honours me)
Panc. 186 nityam eva niśāgame sametyāsmatpakṣakadanaṃ karoti
Mhbh. 1, 168, 11 Hidimba forbids Bhîma to eat, but the other, not caring for this, continues eating rākṣasaṃ tam anādṛtya bhuṅkta eva parāṅmukhaḥ
Kathâs. 30, 3 sa tāṃ dṛṣṭvaiva rūpeṇa jagattritayamohinīm / kṣobhaṃ jagāma

引用された用例から明らかなように、evaは多種多様な翻訳を許す；しばしば、全ては翻訳されない。代名詞の後のものは「同じ」（the same）や「まさしくその」（the very）と訳されることがある。277をみよ。
Nala. 2, 12 etasminn eva kāle (at that very time)
Panc. 324 ekadaiva (at the same time)

【補足1】
叙事詩では、evaは省略されることがある。
R. 3, 25, 89 nādadānaṃ śarān ghorān vimuñcantaṃ śarottamān / vikarṣamāṇaṃ paśyanti rākṣasāste śarārditāḥ

ここで注釈家はvikarṣamāṇam eva（the râxasas did not see him charging his arrows nor discharging them, they saw him only keeping his bow bent [so swiftly Râma was shooting]）と詳説する。
Varâh. Yogay. 1, 18 bhavati daivayutasya siddhiḥ = bha- daivayutasyaiva siddhiḥ

Ind. Stud. X, p. 200におけるKernの注釈も参照のこと。

【補足2】
マントラでは、īm、it、cit、ahaはevaのはたらきをする。

399.

The other restrictives are kevalam, param, kāmam and tāvat.

kevalam and param.

Of these, kevalam and param are = „only, at least, but.” Panc. 312 na vetsi tvaṃ jītaṃ kevalam unnadasi, Kathâs. 32, 143 yogabalena cet / eṣā rājñā navā bhāryā hanyate tan na yujyate / … tasmād buddhibalenaiṣā rājño viśliṣyatāṃ param.

kāmam

kāmam mostly announces some adversative particle, being almost = »to be sure” (442, 1°). It is but seldom used without adversative sentence. Daç. 126 yady apsarobhiḥ saṃgacchase saṃgacchasva kāmam (if you have intercourse with apsarases, so).

tāvat

tāvat has a peculiar employment. Properly it is, an elliptical phrase, for at the outset it, must have meant something like this: „as much [is certain].” Accordingly it advances a statement which is asserted „at all events” or „at least” or „before others.” As it is often an enclitic, the said translations are generally too forcible. In expositions of many links one likes to put tāvat to the first of them, then it may be compared with fr. „d’abord,” cp. 439. It is also much used in exhortations and with imperatives.

Examples: Kathâs. 28, 60 aho keyamasaṃbhāvyavapurbhavet / na tāvanmānuṣī (o! who may this beautiful woman be? She is, at all events, not a mortal). Panc. 318 a brahman thus reflects paripūrṇo ‘yaṃ ghaṭastāvatsaktubhir vartate / tadyadi durbhikṣaṃ bhavati tadanena rūpakāṇāṃ śatamutpadyate (well, this pot is filled with porridge, now if there should be a famine, then —), ibid. 37 Damanaka says to Karataka āvāṃ tāvadapradhānatāṃ gatau / eṣa piṅgalakaḥ… svavyāpāraparāṅmukhaḥ saṃjātaḥ / sarvo ‘pi parijano gataḥ / tatkiṃ kriyate (in the first place we have lost our influence, next our king has become averse to his duty, and finally all his attendants are gone, what is to be done in these circumstances?), ibid. 23 tat tāvaj jānāmi kasyāyaṃ śabdaḥ (therefore, I will know at least, whose voice it is), Mudr. III, p. 114 yat tallekhyapattraṃ tāvad dīyatām (only, give up the letter). Çâk. VI the king eagerly exclaims dhanus tāvat (my bow! = »I want to have my bow and to have it soon”); likewise Mâlav. I, p. 20 the king greets the dancing-masters svāgataṃ bhavaddyām, then turning to his attendance he continues āsane tāvadtrabhavatoḥ, cp. Vikram. V, p. 180 argho ‘rghas tāvat.

jātu

Rem. jātu, an old emphatic particle, seems to be restricted to poetry and almost to negative and interrogative sentences: na jātu »not at all.” Sometimes it may be almost = »perchance, perhaps.” Kathâs. 25, 24 jānīyātsa vṛddho jātu tāṃ purīm. Sometimes cit is affixed to it, see 402.

399. 他の限定詞

他の限定詞はkevalam、param、kāmam、tāvatである。

○kevalam・param

これらのうちkevalamとparamは「…だけ」（only）、「少なくとも」（at least）、「ほんの…」（but）を意味する。
Panc. 312 na vetsi tvaṃ jītaṃ kevalam unnadasi
Kathâs. 32, 143 yogabalena cet / eṣā rājñā navā bhāryā hanyate tanna yujyate / … tasmād buddhibalenaiṣā rājño viśliṣyatāṃ param

○kāmam

kāmamは殆どの場合、何らかの逆接の不変化辞、ほとんどは「なるほど～であるが…」（to be sure）を表す（442-1）。これは逆接の文のない場合には滅多に用いられない。
Daç. 126 yady apsarobhiḥ saṃgacchase saṃgacchasva kāmam (if you have intercourse with apsarases, so)

○tāvat

tāvatは特有の用法をもつ。正確には省略形のフレーズであるが、当初は、「…は確かである」（as much [is certain]）のようなものを意味していたに違いない。したがって、「いずれにしても」（at all events）または「少なくとも」（at least）または「そもそも」（before others）を主張する記述を提出する。これはしばしば前接語であるので、前の翻訳は概して強引に過ぎる。語の最初にtāvatを付すのが好まれるので、フランス語の”d’abord”と比較できる（439）。Ipv.を伴う勧奨文でもよく用いられる。

Examples:
Kathâs. 28, 60 aho keyamasaṃbhāvyavapurbhavet / na tāvanmānuṣī (o! who may this beautiful woman be? She is, at all events, not a mortal)
Panc. 318 a brahman thus reflects paripūrṇo ‘yaṃ ghaṭastāvatsaktubhir vartate / tadyadi durbhikṣaṃ bhavati tadanena rūpakāṇāṃ śatamutpadyate (well, this pot is filled with porridge, now if there should be a famine, then —)
ibid. 37 Damanaka says to Karataka āvāṃ tāvadapradhānatāṃ gatau / eṣa piṅgalakaḥ… svavyāpāraparāṅmukhaḥ saṃjātaḥ / sarvo ‘pi parijano gataḥ / tatkiṃ kriyate (in the first place we have lost our influence, next our king has become averse to his duty, and finally all his attendants are gone, what is to be done in these circumstances?)
ibid. 23 tat tāvaj jānāmi kasyāyaṃ śabdaḥ (therefore, I will know at least, whose voice it is)
Mudr. III, p. 114 yat tallekhyapattraṃ tāvad dīyatām (only, give up the letter)
Çâk. VI the king eagerly exclaims dhanus tāvat (my bow! = »I want to have my bow and to have it soon”)
Mâlav. I, p. 20 the king greets the dancing-masters svāgataṃ bhavaddyām, then turning to his attendance he continues āsane tāvadtrabhavatoḥ
cp. Vikram. V, p. 180 argho ‘rghas tāvat.

jātu

【補足】
古い強調の不変化辞jātuは、詩文、かつほとんどが否定文と疑問文に限定されるようである：na jātu（not at all）。「ことによると」（perchance）や「たぶん」（perhaps）とほぼ等しいこともある。
Kathâs. 25, 24 jānīyātsa vṛddho jātu tāṃ purīm

citがこれに付加されることがある。402をみよ。