421. Connective particles.

The most important connective particles are five monosyllables: ca, vā, u, tu, hi, and four dissyllables atha, api, iva and uta. Of these, ca, api, atha and uta have the most general bearing, as they are simply copulating words = „and, also, further,” though they often admit of some special modification of meaning, so as to get the force of adversatives, concessives etc. For the rest, vā is the disjunctive, tu and the archaic u are adversatives, hi is causal. iva is the particle of comparison.

In the classic language u and uta are no more used alone, but in some combinations they are, cp. 402 R. 1; 442, 2° and 4°. That api, u and uta may also be interrogative particles, has been shown above 412 and 414.

Side by side with the said connective particles one uses several adverbs, serving the same purpose, as aparam and anyat or anyac ca „further, moreover,” param „but. yet,” tathā „likewise, and,” the conclusives tat and tasmāt „therefore,” the causal yataḥ „for,” punaḥ „on the other hand, again, but.” They have completely assumed the nature of conjunctions.

Combinations of these particles either with each other or with other particles are excessively frequent. So ca and api, atha and vā, param and tu are very often combined, eva is often added to ca, api, vā, tu. Some of them may be considered as units, as athavā when = „indeed,” tathāpi „nevertheless.”

420. 呼格

最も重要な接続詞は、5つの単音節の語：ca、vā、u、tu、hiと、4つの2音節の語：atha、api、iva、utaである。これらのうちca・api・athaは、これらが単に接続詞の「そして」「また」「さらに」と等しいために最もよく用いられるのだが、逆接や譲歩等の効力を持って特殊な意味に変わることがしばしば認められる。その他、vāは離接的接続詞、tuと古語のuは逆接、hiは原因を表し、ivaは比較の不変化辞である。

古典サンスクリットにおいてはuとutaは単体で用いられないが、いくつかの組み合わせではそういうこともある；402-補足1、442-2、-4を参照せよ。api・u・utaも疑問詞であり得ることについては412と414で示した。

前述の接続詞と並んで、以下のような同じ目的に資する副詞も用いられる：aparamやanyat / anyac ca（さらに、加えて）、param（けれども）、tathā（同様に、そして）、帰結を表すtatとtasmāt（そこで）、原因を表すyataḥ（…のために）、punaḥ（一方で、また、しかし）。これらは完全に接続詞の性質を帯びている。

これら不変化辞が組み合わされることは非常に頻繁である。よってcaとapi、athaとvā、paramとtuはとても頻繁に結合し、eva はしばしばca、api、vā、tuに付加される。これらのうちいくつかは一まとまりのものと見なされる：athavā（実に）、tathāpi（…にも関わらず）。

422.

As the connection of sentences is the subject-matter of the last Section of this Syntax, it will here suffice to give a succinct account of the connective particles severally, especially with regard to their linking together words within the compass of one and the same sentence.

ca.

1. ca is the copulative particle par excellence „and.” It is as a rule subjoined to the word annexed, as rāmo lakṣmaṇaś ca, but if it annexes a complex of words or a whole sentence, it is affixed to the first word, as pitā mātuś ca svasā (father and mother’s sister). Panc. 225 caireṇa] kaścid dṛṣṭaḥ / dṛṣṭvā ca taṃ… cauro ‘bravīt. This order is seldom inverted in prose (f. i. Panc. 126 rājño vakṣo dvidhā jātaṃ rājā mṛtaś ca instead of mṛtaś ca rājā), oftener in poetry. Nala. I, 22 nipetuste garutmantaḥ sā dadarśa ca tān gaṇān, Kathâs. 44, 3: the preceding sentence is sa piturgṛhe… avasatsukham, then there follows ekadā piturāsthāne sthitaś ca puruṣaṃ… dadarśa saḥ.

Sometimes in poetry ca is put between the two links connected by it. Mhbh. 1, 148, 2 atha yudhiṣṭhiraḥ / bhīmasenārjunau cobhau yamau provāca (then Yudh. addressed Bhîm., Arj. and the twins), M. 9, 322 iha cāmutra vardhate (he becomes great in this world and in the other).

In poets, ca is not rarely put to each of the members connected, also in archaic prose; see f. i. Ch. Up. 1, 3, 2, and cp. τε…τε of Greek poets. But if it is necessary to state that the same thing is endowed with different qualities etc. at the same time, this idiom is also used in prose. Pat. I, p. 430 yājñikaś cāyaṃ caiyākaraṇaś ca (he is an accomplished sacrificer as well as a grammarian), Prabodh. I, p. 15 modaṃ janayati ca saṃmohayati ca (it procures joy and perplexes at the same time). — As to ca… ca expressive of simultaneousness, see 438 R. 2.

Rem. 1. If three or more terms are to be connected, ca is generally put but once, and with the last of them. Panc. 6 bhikṣayā nṛpasevayā kṛṣikarmaṇā vidyopārjanena vyavahāreṇa ca (by begging, by attending on the prince, by agriculture, by turning one’s learning into money, and by trade), Daç. 78 subhagena ca mayā svadhanasya svagṛhasya svagaṇasya svadehasya svajīvitasya ca saiveśvarī kṛtā. Then ca is rarely wanting, sometimes in rhetorical style, as Pat. I, p. 431 ahar ahar nayamāno gām aśvaṃ puruṣaṃ paśum, R. 3, 69, 32 karābhyāṃ vividhāngṛhya ṛkṣān pakṣigaṇān mṛgān, and in some phrases, as Mṛcch. I, p. 20 bhāgyakrameṇa hi dhanāni bhavanti yānti (v. a. as soon as they have come, they disappear), Bhoj. 10 jarāṃ mṛtyuṃ bhayaṃ vyādhiṃ yo jānāsi sa pāṇḍitaḥ.

Rem. 2. Sometimes ca must be translated by a more energetic particle than »and.” It may be = »even.” R. 1, 1, 4 kasya bibhyati devāś ca (of whom are even the gods afraid?), it may be a slight affirmative and even have adversative power, cp. 441.

422. ca

文章の繋がりは本書最後の章の主題なので、ここでは、接続詞の簡単な説明を、特にそれらが同じ1つの文の範囲内の語を結びつけることに関して、いくつか示すのみで事足りるであろう。

1. ca

caは最も優れた連結接続詞であり、「そして」（and）を表す。原則として、rāmo lakṣmaṇaś caのように付加される語〔の次〕に添えられるが、数語あるいは文全体に付加する場合には、pitā mātuś ca svasā (father and mother’s sister)のように、最初の語〔の次〕に添えられる。
Panc. 225 caireṇa] kaścid dṛṣṭaḥ / dṛṣṭvā ca taṃ… cauro ‘bravīt

この語順は、散文においては、めったに逆にならない（例としてはPanc. 126 rājño vakṣo dvidhā jātaṃ rājā mṛtaś caをみよ。本来はmṛtaś ca rājā）が、詩文ではしばしば転倒する。
Nala. I, 22 nipetuste garutmantaḥ sā dadarśa ca tān gaṇān
Kathâs. 44, 3: the preceding sentence is sa piturgṛhe… avasatsukham

後者はekadā piturāsthāne sthitaś ca puruṣaṃ… dadarśa saḥと続く。

詩文においては、caはそれが接続する語の間に来ることがある。
Mhbh. 1, 148, 2 atha yudhiṣṭhiraḥ / bhīmasenārjunau cobhau yamau provāca (then Yudh. addressed Bhîm., Arj. and the twins)
M. 9, 322 iha cāmutra vardhate (he becomes great in this world and in the other)

詩人たちにあっては、接続されている要素のそれぞれにcaが置かれることは稀でない。古風な散文においてもそうである。例としては、Ch. Up. 1, 3, 2をみよ。古代ギリシャ語の詩人におけるτε…τεと比較せよ。けれども、同一のものに異なる性質等が同時に与えられていることを述べる必要がある場合、このイディオムは散文でも用いられる。
Pat. I, p. 430 yājñikaś cāyaṃ caiyākaraṇaś ca (he is an accomplished sacrificer as well as a grammarian)
Prabodh. I, p. 15 modaṃ janayati ca saṃmohayati ca (it procures joy and perplexes at the same time)

同時性を表すca… caについては438の補足2をみよ。

【補足1】
3つ以上の語句が接続される場合、caはふつう一度のみ、それらの語の最後に置かれる。
Panc. 6 bhikṣayā nṛpasevayā kṛṣikarmaṇā vidyopārjanena vyavahāreṇa ca (by begging, by attending on the prince, by agriculture, by turning one’s learning into money, and by trade)
Daç. 78 subhagena ca mayā svadhanasya svagṛhasya svagaṇasya svadehasya svajīvitasya ca saiveśvarī kṛtā

その場合caが欠落することは稀であるが、修辞のスタイルや成句によっては省略されることもある。
Pat. I, p. 431 ahar ahar nayamāno gām aśvaṃ puruṣaṃ paśum
R. 3, 69, 32 karābhyāṃ vividhāngṛhya ṛkṣān pakṣigaṇān mṛgān
Mṛcch. I, p. 20 bhāgyakrameṇa hi dhanāni bhavanti yānti (v. a. as soon as they have come, they disappear)
Bhoj. 10 jarāṃ mṛtyuṃ bhayaṃ vyādhiṃ yo jānāsi sa pāṇḍitaḥ

【補足2】
caは、「そして」（and）よりも強い語で翻訳しなければならないことがある。
R. 1, 1, 4 kasya bibhyati devāś ca (of whom are even the gods afraid?)

これは多少の肯定でありうるし、逆接のはたらきをも持ちうる。441をみよ。

423. api.

2. api may be 1. = „and, too, moreover, also,” 2. = „even,” 3. = „though”. Like ca, it is commonly subjoined to the word — or first of the words — connected by it; in poets, it not rarely precedes. Examples of 1. Pat. I, p. 125 tavāśvo naṣṭo mamāpi ratho dagdhaḥ (your horse is lost and my chariot is burnt). Panc. 246 the king of the frogs mounts on the back of the serpent Mandavisha; seeing this, the others too do so śeṣā api yathājyeṣṭhaṃ tatpṛṣṭhopari samāruruhuḥ; Çâk. I asti naḥ saccaritaśravaṇalobhād anyad api praṣtavyam (v. a. I would ask you once more); — of 2. Mudr. I, p. 30 na yuktaṃ prākṛtam api ripum avajñātum (it is not advisable to despise a foe, not even a mean one); — of 3. Kathâs. 42, 28 anvagātsa ca taṃ tuṣṇīm anicchann api (and, though reluctantly, he followed him).

In poetry however, api occasionally precedes the word it attends instead of being subjoined to it. Mhbh. 1, 76, 52 kaṃ brahmahatyā na dahed apīndram (whom would not the hurting of a brahman consume? even Indra), Kumâras. 6, 59 Himavân says api vyāptadigantāni nāṅgāni prabhavanti me (my limbs though stretching in all directions, have no power —), Panc. III, 92 api svarge instead of svarge ‘pi etc. Another instance of poetical license is such an arrangement as we have Nala. I, 30 tvam apy evaṃ nale vada instead of tvam evaṃ nale ‘pi vada (speak in this way also to N.).

Rem. Apart from being a connective, api has many more meanings. It may be a) an interrogative particle, see 412; b) with imperative it strengthens the exhortation, see Kâç. on P. 1, 4, 96 api siñca (do, pour out); c) it often precedes the liṅ, when doing duty as an optative (343, b) or in the idiom mentioned 343 c) 5°. In these cases api heads the sentence. — In other meanings again it is used, when subjoined to nouns of number (298), or when put to the interrogative pronouns and adverbs, see 281 and 288.

Moreover api, when of time, may be = 1. »only, but,” as muhūrtam api pratīkṣasva (wait but for a moment), 2. »still,” f. i. Kathâs. 3, 18 bālo ‘pi »when still a boy.”

423. api

2. apiは①「そして」（and）、「そのうえ」（too）、「又」（also）、「さらに」（moreover）、②「…さえ」（even）、③「…であるが」（though）を意味する。caと同様に、ふつうそれが接続する単語の後に—あるいは複数の語の最初に—付加される。

例：
①
Pat. I, p. 125 tavāśvo naṣṭo mamāpi ratho dagdhaḥ (your horse is lost and my chariot is burnt)
Panc. 246 the king of the frogs mounts on the back of the serpent Mandavisha; seeing this, the others too do so śeṣā api yathājyeṣṭhaṃ tatpṛṣṭhopari samāruruhuḥ
Çâk. I asti naḥ saccaritaśravaṇalobhād anyad api praṣtavyam (v. a. I would ask you once more)
②
Mudr. I, p. 30 na yuktaṃ prākṛtam api ripum avajñātum (it is not advisable to despise a foe, not even a mean one)
③
Kathâs. 42, 28 anvagātsa ca taṃ tuṣṇīm anicchann api (and, though reluctantly, he followed him)

けれども、詩文においては、apiは、係る語の後に付加される代わりに、先行することがある。
Mhbh. 1, 76, 52 kaṃ brahmahatyā na dahed apīndram (whom would not the hurting of a brahman consume? even Indra)
Kumâras. 6, 59 Himavân says api vyāptadigantāni nāṅgāni prabhavanti me (my limbs though stretching in all directions, have no power —)
Panc. III, 92 api svarge （instead of svarge ‘pi etc.）
Nala. I, 30 tvam apy evaṃ nale vada （instead of tvam evaṃ nale ‘pi vada） (speak in this way also to N.)

【補足】
接続詞であるものを除いて、apiはもっと多くの意味を持つ。すなわち、a.) 疑問詞（412）、b.) Ipv.を伴って勧奨を強めるもの（Kâç. on P. 1, 4, 96 api siñca＝"do, pour out"）、c.) しばしばliṅに先行しOpt.（343-b）や343 c) 5°に言及したイディオムのはたらきをするもの、である。これらのケースではapiは文頭に来る。—他の意味では、数詞（298）に付随して用いられたり、疑問代名詞や副詞に付けられたりする。281と288をみよ。
さらに、時間を表すapiは、①「…だけ」（only, but）：muhūrtam api pratīkṣasva (wait but for a moment)、②「まだ」（still）：Kathâs. 3, 18 bālo ‘pi (when still a boy)を表しうる。

424. uta.

3. uta is almost a synonym of api. In the classic language it is obsolete. As to its employment as an interrogative particle see 412, 2 and 414, with optative it is also used like api, see 348 c) 5°, and cp. P. 3, 3, 152. — As a connective it is found in the old liturgical and epic literature. Mhbh. 1, 90, 24 mānāgnihotram uta mānamaunaṃ mānenādhotam uta mānayajñāḥ. At the close of verses or pâdas, uta and apy uta are rather emphatics or mere expletives. — In classic prose one uses kim uta (442, 4°) and praty uta (442, 2°).

424. uta

3. utaはほとんどapiの同義語である。古典サンスクリットでは廃れた。疑問詞としての用法については412-2および414をみよ。Opt.を伴ってapiのように用いられるものについては348 c) 5°。P. 3, 3, 152と比較せよ。—接続のutaについては、古い祭儀書や叙事詩にみられる。
Mhbh. 1, 90, 24 mānāgnihotram uta mānamaunaṃ mānenādhotam uta mānayajñāḥ

詩節やpādaの末尾では、utaとapy utaは、どちらかと言えば強調か単なる虚辞である。—古典サンスクリットの散文においてはkim uta（442, 4°）とpraty uta（442, 2°）が用いられる。

425. atha.

4. atha serves to introduce some new element (person, thing or fact). It may be wholly = ca, and connect even single words, f. i. Panc. V, 11 vyādhitena saśokena cintāgrastena jantunā / kāmārtenātha mattena dṛṣṭaḥ svapno nirarthakaḥ, here atha is equivalent to ca. Occasionally atha may be a disjunctive, as Kathâs. 79, 24 jñānī śūro ‘tha vijñānī bhartāsmadduhitur mataḥ.

Its most common employment, however, is to annex a new sentence, especially if there be a change of subject;

hence it is not rarely an adversative. Sometimes it introduces the apodosis, sometimes it has a temporal meaning „afterwards,” (*1) moreover it may do duty as a conditional conjunction, as will be more fully explained in the last Section of this book.

Note its employment at the beginning of a book or chapter or section, where it is the traditional opening-word in profane writings, like the syllable om in Holy Writ. Pancatantra IV f. i. commences athedam ārabhyate labdhapraṇāśaṃ nāma caturthaṃ tantram (now begins the 4th tantra —).

In prose it is the first word, but in poetry it may hold any other place.

(*1)
Especially in the archaic dialect. Ait. Br. 2, 25, 1 teṣām ājim yatām abhisṛṣṭānāṃ vāyur mukhaṃ prathamaḥ pratyapadyatāthendro ‘tha mitrāvaruṇāvathāśvinau (of them — Agni reached the aim the first, after him Indra, then Mitra and Varuṇa, then the Açvins)

425. atha

4. athaはなにがしかの新たな要素（人、物、事実）を導入するために用いられる。ほとんどcaと同じであるが、1つの語であっても接続しうる。
Panc. V, 11 vyādhitena saśokena cintāgrastena jantunā / kāmārtenātha mattena dṛṣṭaḥ svapno nirarthakaḥ

ここではathaはcaと等価である。時にathaは以下のように離接的接続詞でもあり得る。
Kathâs. 79, 24 jñānī śūro ‘tha vijñānī bhartāsmadduhitur mataḥ

その最も一般的な用法は、実際には、とりわけ主題の変更がある場合に、新たな文を付け加えることである；よって逆接であることも珍しくない。帰結文を導いたり、時間の意味（「その後で」）を持っていることもある（*1）。さらには、この本の最後の節で詳説されるような、条件の接続詞としての役割を果たしうる。

文書・章・節の冒頭における用法には注意せよ。聖典におけるomと同様に、これは世俗的な書き物における伝統的な出だしである。
Panc. IV athedam ārabhyate labdhapraṇāśaṃ nāma caturthaṃ tantram (now begins the 4th tantra —)

散文だとathaは文頭に来るが、詩文では他の位置にも置かれうる。

（*1）
特にヴェーダ語において。
Ait. Br. 2, 25, 1 teṣām ājim yatām abhisṛṣṭānāṃ vāyur mukhaṃ prathamaḥ pratyapadyatāthendro ‘tha mitrāvaruṇāvathāśvinau (of them — Agni reached the aim the first, after him Indra, then Mitra and Varuṇa, then the Açvins)

426.

atha combines with other particles. So we have athāpi, atha ca, atho (= atha + u), see f. i Âçv. Grhy. 1, 1, 3; R. 3, 11, 74; Panc. IV, 73.

athavā.

But the commonest of those combinations is athavā which is almost looked upon as a unit. It is used for the sake of correcting one’s self. It introduces, therefore, a statement more exact than the preceding one; in accordance with the nature of the contrast between the two, one may translate athavā by „or rather” or „on the contrary” or „no” or „but,” f. i. Panc. 23 anyato vrajāmi / athavā naitadyujyate (I will go to another place. But that will not do), R. 3, 60, 29 naiva sā nūnam athavā hiṃsitā cāruhāsinī (surely, it is not she, no, she has been hurt, my graceful lady).

As to atha kim, see 395 R.

426. atha＋不変化辞

athaは他の不変化辞とも結合する。なので、athāpi、atha ca、atho（atha + u）となる。例としてはÂçv. Grhy. 1, 1, 3、R. 3, 11, 74、Panc. IV, 73をみよ。

○athavā

けれども、それらのうちで最も一般的な組み合わせは、ほとんど1語として見なされるathavāである。これは自身で誤りを訂正するために用いられる。したがって、これは先行するものより正確な記述を導入する；対照的な2つのものの間の性質に応じて、athavāは、「…よりはむしろ」（or rather）、「それどころか」（on the contrary）、「いいや」（no）、「しかし」（but）で翻訳しうる。
Panc. 23 anyato vrajāmi / athavā naitadyujyate (I will go to another place. But that will not do)
R. 3, 60, 29 naiva sā nūnam athavā hiṃsitā cāruhāsinī (surely, it is not she, no, she has been hurt, my graceful lady)

atha kimに関しては395の補足をみよ。

427. tathā.

tathā „so,” when = „likewise” that is „and, too,” may also be reckoned among the connectives. This employment is chiefly poetical.

For the rest, api, ca and tathā may be strengthened by eva and may mingle together. Hence arises a great variety of combinations, especially in verse, as apy eva, api ca, cāpi; caiva, eva ca; tathaiva, tathā ca etc.

427. tathā

tathā（「そのように」）は、「そのうえ」（likewise）、すなわち「そして」（and）や「しかも」（too）である場合、接続詞の1つとみなされる。この用法は主に詩文におけるものである。

その他、api、ca、tathāはevaによって意味が強められ、1語にもなりうる。よって特に韻文では、apy eva、api ca、cāpi、caiva、eva ca、tathaiva、tathā caなど、様々な組み合わせが起こる。

428. vā.

The enclitic vā, like ca, is subjoined to the word which it annexes. It is the disjunctive particle „or.” ahaṃ tvaṃ vā „I or you.” „Either… or” is vā… vā. M. 3, 26 pṛthagpṛthagvā miśrau vā vivāhau (the two modes of marriage either performed severally or conjoined), Kathâs. 31, 39 na hi paśyati tuṅgaṃ vā śvabhraṃ vā strījano ‘grataḥ / smareṇa nītaḥ.

Rem. Instead of vā… vā one says also vā yadi vā. R. 3, 11, 90 nātra jovenmṛṣāvādī krūro vā yadi vā śaṭhaḥ / pāpavṛtto vā (here no liar can live, nor a cruel man, nor a rogue, nor a barbarous one nor an evildoer), cp. R. 2, 109, 4, Panc. I, 118. — Likewise one uses vā… api vā or vāpi, etc. As to vā in interrogations, see 409, 3° and 412 R., on its force as an emphatic 397 R. 1.

428. vā

前接語のvāは、caと同様に、それが追加する語に添えられる。離接的接続詞の「あるいは」（or）である。ahaṃ tvaṃ vā（私、あるいはあなた）のようになる。「…か…のどちらか」（either… or）はvā… vā。
M. 3, 26 pṛthagpṛthagvā miśrau vā vivāhau (the two modes of marriage either performed severally or conjoined)
Kathâs. 31, 39 na hi paśyati tuṅgaṃ vā śvabhraṃ vā strījano ‘grataḥ / smareṇa nītaḥ

【補足】
vā… vāの代わりにvā yadi vāとも言いうる。
R. 3, 11, 90 nātra jovenmṛṣāvādī krūro vā yadi vā śaṭhaḥ / pāpavṛtto vā (here no liar can live, nor a cruel man, nor a rogue, nor a barbarous one nor an evildoer)

R. 2, 109, 4やPanc. I, 118と比較せよ。—同様に、vā… api vāやvāpiも用いられる。疑問文におけるvāについては409-3および412の補足を、その強調のはたらきについては397の補足1をみよ。

429. tu, hi, and u.

tu, hi and the enclitic u are, like ca and vā, subjoined to the first word of the sentence. hi was at the outset an emphatic, a weak „indeed,” but generally it is a causal particle, at least in prose; tu and u are adversatives „but; on the other hand.” u is no more used in the classic dialect, save when added to some other particle, as no = na + u, atho = atha + u, cp. 402 R. 1.

429. tu、hi、u

tu、hiおよび前接語のuは、caやvāと同様に、文頭の語に添えられる。hiは、当初は強調であり、弱いindeedであったが、少なくとも散文においては一般に原因を表す不変化辞である；tuとuは逆接の「しかし」（but）、「一方で」（on the other hand）である。uは、古典サンスクリットではもはや用いられないが、no（= na + u）やatho（= atha + u）のようないくつかの不変化辞に付加されている場合は保持される。402の補足1をみよ。

430. iva.

iva „like, as” is the particle of comparison. It is always put after the standard of comparison, siṃha iva balavān (strong like a lion). Mṛcch. I, p. 48 andhasya dṛṣṭir iva puṣṭir ivāturasya mūrkhasya buddhir iva siddhir ivālasasya / svalpasmṛter vyasaninaḥ param eva vidyā / … sā pranaṣṭā (she has disappeared, like the eight of the blind, like the health of the sick, like the wisdom of the fool, like the prosperity of the sluggard, like the learning of the dull and dissipated), Çâk. VI kañcid ahim iva vismṛtavān asi tvam (have you perhaps forgotten it, as I have?). If the standard of comparison or the simile consists of more words, iva likes to be put in the midst of them. Çâk. VII kiṃ nu khalu bāle ‘sminnaurasa iva putre snihyati me manaḥ. Exceptions as to the place of iva may occasionally be found in poets.

yathā.

The other particle of comparison is the relative yathā. It is especially used, if the standard of comparison is expressed by a full sentence, but it does the same duty as iva.

Rem. 1. It is a matter of course, that iva and yathā have no influence at all on the case of the noun they are construed with. Both the noun compared and the standard of comparison are put in the same case. Kumâras. 4, 25 taiḥ paridevitākṣarair hṛdaye dagdhaśarair ivāhataḥ (struck by those lamentations, as if they were poisoned arrows); Nala. 2, 28 taṃ dṛṣṭvā… bhrājamānaṃ yathā ravim (on seeing him who was bright like the sun).

Rem. 2. Note the idiom ābhāsata iva »he appears like,” f. i. Kumâras. 7, 3 [tatpuraṃ] svarga ivābabhāse.

Rem. 3. iva and yathā are often used in similes. In this case they may be strengthened by adding to them such epithets as sākṣāt (in person), vigrahavant or vigrahin (embodied), svayam, apara (cp. Lat. Mars alter) and the like. Nala. 1, 4 the hero is said to have been an excellent archer and ruler of his subjects sākṣād iva manuḥ svayam »as if he were Manu himself,” Daç. 116 a beautiful woman is called ratir iva vigrahiṇī (the goddess Rati embodied), Mhbh. 1, 85, 5 yayātiḥ pālayām āsa sākṣād indra ivāparaḥ. Cp. Kumâras. 6, 11, Ragh. 2, 16, Mâlav. I, p. 24, Kâm. 3, 30, etc.

430. iva

iva（…のように）は比較の不変化辞である。これは常に比較の基準になる語の後ろに置かれる；siṃha iva balavā（ライオンの如く強い）のように。
Mṛcch. I, p. 48 andhasya dṛṣṭir iva puṣṭir ivāturasya mūrkhasya buddhir iva siddhir ivālasasya / svalpasmṛter vyasaninaḥ param eva vidyā / … sā pranaṣṭā (she has disappeared, like the eight of the blind, like the health of the sick, like the wisdom of the fool, like the prosperity of the sluggard, like the learning of the dull and dissipated)
Çâk. VI kañcid ahim iva vismṛtavān asi tvam (have you perhaps forgotten it, as I have?)

比較の基準やその類義語が複数の単語から成る場合、ivaはそれらの間に置かれることを好む。
Çâk. VII kiṃ nu khalu bāle ‘sminnaurasa iva putre snihyati me manaḥ

ivaの位置に関する例外は、詩文で見られることがある。

○yathā

その他の比較の不変化辞は、関係詞yathāである。これは特に比較の基準が文全体で表現される場合に用いられるが、ivaと同じ役割をする。

【補足1】
もちろん、ivaとyathāは、それらが解釈される名詞の格にまったく影響を与えない。比較される名詞と比較の基準は、ともに同じ格に置かれる。
Kumâras. 4, 25 taiḥ paridevitākṣarair hṛdaye dagdhaśarair ivāhataḥ (struck by those lamentations, as if they were poisoned arrows)
Nala. 2, 28 taṃ dṛṣṭvā… bhrājamānaṃ yathā ravim (on seeing him who was bright like the sun)

【補足2】
イディオムābhāsata iva（彼は…の如く現れる）に注意せよ。
Kumâras. 7, 3 [tatpuraṃ] svarga ivābabhāse

【補足3】
ivaとyathāはしばしば直喩で用いられる。この場合、これらは、sākṣāt（自ら）、vigrahavant / vigrahin（体現された）、svayam、apara（cp. Lat. Mars alter）などのような形容辞を加えることで意味が強められる。
Nala. 1, 4 the hero is said to have been an excellent archer and ruler of his subjects sākṣād iva manuḥ svayam »as if he were Manu himself’’
Daç. 116 a beautiful woman is called ratir iva vigrahiṇī (the goddess Rati embodied)
Mhbh. 1, 85, 5 yayātiḥ pālayām āsa sākṣād indra ivāparaḥ

Cp. Kumâras. 6, 11, Ragh. 2, 16, Mâlav. I, p. 24, Kâm. 3, 30, etc.

431.

Moreover, iva is used to soften some expression, in the same way as German etwa, our rather, almost, as if it were. Mudr. II, p. 58 viphalam iva rākṣasaprayatnam avagacchāmi (I perceive that the exertions of R. are almost fruitless), R. 2, 85, 7 iyaṃ te mahatī senā śaṅkāṃ janayatīva me.

431. 表現を和らげるiva

加えて、ivaは、ドイツ語のetwaや英語のrather、almost、as if it wereと同じ仕方で、何らかの表現を和らげる。
Mudr. II, p. 58 viphalam iva rākṣasaprayatnam avagacchāmi (I perceive that the exertions of R. are almost fruitless)
R. 2, 85, 7 iyaṃ te mahatī senā śaṅkāṃ janayatīva me

432.

Our „as,” when not expressing likeness, is not rendered at all in Sanskrit or by sthāne with gen.

tadyathā.

But „as” = „for instance, namely” is tadyathā. Mudr. III, p. 117 vṛṣala iha khalu viraktānāṃ prakṛtīnāṃ dvividhaṃ pratividhānaṃ tadyathānugraho nigahaś ceti (well, Vrshala, there are two means to be put into effect against disaffected subjects, viz. favour and force).

432. 英語の”as”に対応する表現

類似を表さない場合の英語の〔状態を表す〕asに当たるものは、サンスクリットでは完全に翻訳されないか、あるいはgen.を伴うsthāneで表される。

○tadyathā

けれども、「例えば」（for instance）や「すなわち」（namely）を表すasにはtadyathāが用いられる。
Mudr. III, p. 117 vṛṣala iha khalu viraktānāṃ prakṛtīnāṃ dvividhaṃ pratividhānaṃ tadyathānugraho nigahaś ceti (well, Vrshala, there are two means to be put into effect against disaffected subjects, viz. favour and force)